# Build Candidate - Object ID: `em:research-note:sha256:a5be42bfa541a42e6e6c16714c58356aaa2aab2438a9a5cbc5d98118bbd197fd` - Kind: `research-note` - Repository path: [`research/how-we-know/corrections-backfire/build_candidate.py`](https://github.com/yoheinakajima/epistemedia/blob/f92846570180dfa4511263f8ba98ecd18f7772c9/research/how-we-know/corrections-backfire/build_candidate.py) - Content digest: `c81ab834a68961294091c6f42495e5a7618994126bbcfdf2f86cf34106a9ac6e` **Also filed under:** [Research Program](https://epistemedia.org/topics/research-program/) ## Source content """Build and verify the EM-0019 draft dossier. The source packets below contain only the exact excerpts needed for review. Full provider artifacts remain outside the repository; their retrieval digests and license limits are recorded in each packet. """ from __future__ import annotations import argparse import hashlib import json from pathlib import Path from typing import Any from epistemedia.core import canonical_json from epistemedia.dossier import ( DOSSIER_FORMAT, independence_summary, stamp_dossier, validate_dossier, ) HERE = Path(__file__).resolve().parent CANDIDATE_PATH = HERE / "candidate-dossier.json" RETRIEVED_AT = "2026-08-22T06:13:51Z" CORRECTION_RETRIEVED_AT = "2026-08-22T07:11:15Z" REVIEW_REPAIR_RETRIEVED_AT = "2026-08-22T16:14:38Z" SEARCH_LEDGER_RETRIEVED_AT = "2026-08-22T17:32:37Z" def prose(*sentences: str) -> str: return " ".join(sentence.strip() for sentence in sentences) def digest_bytes(value: bytes) -> str: return "sha256:" + hashlib.sha256(value).hexdigest() def content_bytes(value: Any) -> bytes: if isinstance(value, str): return value.encode("utf-8") return canonical_json(value).encode("utf-8") def edition( key: str, work_key: str, label: str, media_type: str, content: dict[str, Any], *, retrieved_at: str = RETRIEVED_AT, ) -> dict[str, Any]: encoded = content_bytes(content) return { "key": key, "work_key": work_key, "edition_label": label, "media_type": media_type, "retrieved_at": retrieved_at, "content": content, "content_digest": digest_bytes(encoded), "content_length": len(encoded), "visibility": "public", } def excerpt( locator: str, text: str, *, verification: str = "artifact", ) -> dict[str, str]: return {"locator": locator, "text": text, "verification": verification} def span( key: str, edition_key: str, excerpt_index: int, label: str, exact_text: str, ) -> dict[str, Any]: return { "key": key, "edition_key": edition_key, "locator": { "type": "json-pointer", "pointer": f"/excerpts/{excerpt_index}/text", "label": label, }, "extent": {"type": "json-value", "value": exact_text}, "digest": digest_bytes(exact_text.encode("utf-8")), "visibility": "public", } SKURNIK_SUMMARY = prose( "Telling people that a consumer claim is false can make them misremember it as true.", "In two experiments, older adults were especially susceptible to this “illusion of " "truth” effect.", ) HANDBOOK_CLAIM = "Hence the backfire effect is real." HANDBOOK_ADVICE = "Ideally, avoid mentioning the myth altogether while correcting it." HANDBOOK_EXPERIMENT = ( "To test for this backfire effect, people were shown a flyer that debunked common " "myths about flu vaccines." ) HANDBOOK_DELAY = ( "However, when queried 30 minutes after reading the flyer, some people actually scored " "worse after reading the flyer." ) HANDBOOK_REFERENCE = ( "Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D., & Schwarz, N. (2005). How warnings about " "false claims become recommendations. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 713-724." ) HANDBOOK_UPDATE = ( "For the most current information about this elusive effect please read the relevant " "excerpt from the new version of the handbook here." ) SCHWARZ_CLAIM = prose( "Erroneous beliefs are difficult to correct.", "Worse, popular correction strategies, such as the myth-versus-fact article format, " "may backfire because they subtly reinforce the myths through repetition and further " "increase the spread and acceptance of misinformation.", ) SCHWARZ_REFERENCE = ( "Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C., & Schwarz, N. (2005). How warnings about false " "claims become recommendations. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 713–724." ) SCHWARZ_SKURNIK_2005_DELAY = ( "But 3 days later, after their memories had a chance to fade, participants were more " "likely to think that any statement they had seen was true, whether it had been " "presented as true or false." ) SCHWARZ_SKURNIK_2005_OLDER = ( "Older participants were particularly vulnerable to this bias, presumably because " "their poorer memory made it harder to remember the details of what they had heard earlier." ) SCHWARZ_FLU_2007_MEMORY = ( "When undergraduates viewed a myths-and-facts flyer about the flu taken from the CDC " "website, they remembered some myths as facts after only 30 minutes." ) SCHWARZ_FLU_2007_INTENTIONS = ( "Worse, their reported intentions to get vaccinated were even lower than those of " "control participants who had not been exposed to any message about the flu." ) SCHWARZ_REFERENCE_6 = ( "Schwarz, N., Sanna, L. J., Skurnik, I., & Yoon, C. (2007). Metacognitive experiences " "and the intricacies of setting people straight: Implications for debiasing and public " "information campaigns. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 127–161." ) ECKER_2020_RESULT = prose( "Experiment 1 found some evidence for a familiarity backfire effect, but the evidence " "was statistically weak and the result failed to occur in an exact replication with " "greater experimental power (Experiment 2) as well as a close replication that added " "only a trivial secondary task (the no-load condition of Experiment 3).", "In fact, both Experiments 2 and 3 yielded substantial evidence against the presence " "of a familiarity backfire effect, even under conditions that should maximize reliance " "on familiarity and thus facilitate occurrence of familiarity backfire, viz. the " "combination of novel claims that maximized the familiarity boost conveyed by first " "exposure, a relatively long 1-week retention interval, and correction encoding under " "cognitive load (the load condition of Experiment 3).", ) ECKER_2020_GUIDANCE_OVERREACH = ( "The practical implications of this research are clear: recommendations to front-line " "educators and communicators to entirely avoid repeating misinformation when debunking " "(Cook & Lewandowsky, 2011; Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Peter & Koch, 2016; Schwarz et " "al., 2007, 2016) were unwarranted." ) ECKER_2020_GUIDANCE_CONCLUSION = ( "Finally, the present study suggests that exposure to a correction does not cause " "familiarity backfire relative to a no-exposure control even with novel claims, and " "thus corrections do not seem to spread misinformation to new audiences easily." ) ECKER_2020_UNPUBLISHED_LINEAGE = ( "the only clear demonstration of a familiarity backfire effect was reported in an " "unpublished manuscript by Skurnik, Yoon, and Schwarz (2007; discussed by Schwarz et " "al., 2007)" ) ECKER_2020_NO_BASELINE = ( "the study also did not feature a baseline condition against which to access actual “backfire.”" ) ECKER_2020_RECRUITMENT = ( "Participants were US-based adult Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) workers, who had " "completed at least 5000 so-called human-intelligence tasks (HITs) with 97% + approval." ) ECKER_2020_CLOUDRESEARCH = ( "The experiment was administered using Qualtrics survey software (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) " "via the CloudResearch platform (formerly TurkPrime; Litman, Robinson, & Abberbock, 2017)." ) ECKER_2020_ECKER_2011_SEARCH = ( "unlike Skurnik et al. (2005), Ecker et al. (2011) found that multiple retractions were " "more effective than singular retractions at reducing continued influence." ) ECKER_2020_ECKER_2017_SEARCH = ( "Likewise, Ecker, Hogan, and Lewandowsky (2017) found that repeating a piece of " "misinformation when correcting it actually led to stronger reduction of the continued " "influence effect than a correction that avoided misinformation repetition." ) ECKER_2020_SWIRE_2017_SEARCH = prose( "They, too, failed to observe any familiarity backfire effects: post-correction belief " "in misinformation was always lower than pre-correction belief.", "This reduction in false-claim belief was observed even under conditions where the impact " "of familiarity (relative to recollection) should be maximal, viz. in elderly participants " "and after a long retention interval of up to 3 weeks.", ) PRIKE_2023_RESULT = prose( "Across three experiments (total N = 1156) we found that standalone corrections did " "not backfire immediately (Experiment 1) or after a one-week delay (Experiment 2).", "However, there was some mixed evidence suggesting corrections may backfire when there " "is skepticism regarding the correction (Experiment 3).", "Specifically, in Experiment 3, we found the standalone correction to backfire in " "open-ended responses, but only when there was skepticism towards the correction.", "However, this did not replicate with the rating scales measure.", ) PRIKE_2023_RECRUITMENT = prose( "To account for potential exclusions and ensure ample statistical power, 283 participants " "were recruited from the online testing platform Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) via " "CloudResearch (Litman et al., 2017).", "Participants were eligible if they resided in the United States of America and had " "previously completed more than 5000 MTurk tasks (HITs) with a minimum approval rating " "of 97%.", ) PRIKE_2023_ETHICS = ( "All procedures were approved by the University of Western Australia’s Human Research " "Ethics Office (Ethics ID: RA/4/20/6423)." ) PRIKE_2023_AUTRY_SAMPLE = ( "Additionally, Autry and Duarte only sampled undergraduates whereas our participants " "were recruited from MTurk without any age restrictions." ) ECKER_2023_RESULT = prose( "We found that the myths vs. facts condition reduced vaccine misconceptions.", "None of the conditions increased vaccine misconceptions relative to control at either " "timepoint, or relative to a pre-intervention baseline; thus, no backfire effects were " "observed.", "This failure to replicate adds to the mounting evidence against familiarity backfire " "effects and has implications for vaccination communications and the design of " "debunking interventions.", ) ECKER_2023_RECRUITMENT = ( "To additionally account for an expected drop-out rate of 15% between T1 and T2, a " "convenience sample of 440 UK-based participants was recruited using Prolific." ) ECKER_2023_MATERIALS = ( "Stimuli were taken directly from Pluviano et al. (2017) and are provided in the S1 File, " "available at https://osf.io/dwyma/." ) ECKER_2023_ETHICS = ( "The experiment was approved by the Human Research Ethics Office of the University of " "Western Australia (RA/4/20/6423)." ) AUTRY_2021_RESULT = ( "When subjects were exposed to the target concept, negated corrections reduced mentions " "of the misinformation relative to no correction; however, when not exposed to the " "concept, negated corrections increased mentions relative to no correction." ) AUTRY_2021_QUALIFIER = ( "When subjects were not exposed, negated corrections increased mentions of the target " "concept compared to no correction (although this effect was nonsignificant in Experiment 2)." ) AUTRY_2021_TIMING_LIMIT = ( "The effects of exposure on negated corrections occurred after a 5-min delay in " "Experiment 1 and no delay in Experiment 2; therefore, further research is necessary " "to determine whether the increased belief from negated corrections persists over " "longer intervals." ) PLUVIANO_2017_RESULT = ( "This time, beliefs in the vaccines/autism link were statistically significantly higher " "in the myths vs. facts condition compared to the visual (M = .97, SE = .22, p < .001) " "and control condition (M = .8, SE = .22, p = .002), and in the fear condition compared " "to visual condition (M = .67, SE = .22, p = .016)." ) PLUVIANO_2017_LIMITATION = prose( "Some aspects of our experimental procedures may limit the generalization of the findings.", "Firstly, we used a convenience sample with limited variability in age and educational level.", ) PLUVIANO_2019_RESULT = ( "Data provided support for the existence of backfire effects associated with the use of " "the myths vs. fact format, with parents in this condition having stronger vaccine " "misconceptions over time compared with participants in the control condition." ) PLUVIANO_2019_DEPENDENCE = ( "We opted for a 7-day delay between the two tests as suggested by Nyhan et al.’s (2014) " "study and to allow a straight comparison with our own previous study (Pluviano et al. 2017)." ) THOMAS_2024_RESULT = ( "Misinformation use was significantly greater when a correction was provided without " "licensing than when no information was provided at all." ) THOMAS_2024_MECHANISM = ( "We suggest that the backfire effect observed in this study may be the result of a " "violation of the Gricean maxims of communication" ) NIBAT_2026_SCOPE = ( "Across five studies (N = 4337), this article systematically compares the competing " "effects of repetition and correction on belief in corporate misinformation and brand " "evaluations." ) NIBAT_2026_RESULT = ( "This research finds no evidence of a familiarity backfire effect: in none of the studies, " "repetition increases belief in the misinformation more than correction reduces it." ) CAMERON_2013_KNOWLEDGE = ( "All participants’ knowledge scores increased significantly (p <0.05); those exposed to " "the CDC Control message had a higher posttest knowledge score (adjusted mean=11.18) than " "those in the Facts Only condition (adjusted mean 9.61, p=<0.02)." ) CAMERON_2013_NO_COUNTERPRODUCTIVE = ( "We found no evidence that presenting both facts and myths is counterproductive to recall " "accuracy." ) ECKER_SHORT_2020_RESULT = ( "Regarding (1), simple retractions reduced belief in false claims, and we found no evidence " "for a familiarity‐driven backfire effect." ) SWIRE_THOMPSON_2022_RESULT = prose( "In two nearly identical experiments, we conducted a longitudinal pre/post design with " "N = 388 and 532 participants.", "Participants rated 21 misinformation items and were assigned to a correction condition " "or test-retest control.", "We found that no items backfired more in the correction condition compared to test-retest " "control or initial belief ratings.", ) SWIRE_2017_EXPERIMENT_1_RESULT = ( "As post-manipulation belief levels remained below pre-manipulation belief levels, no " "true backfire effect was elicited." ) SWIRE_2017_EXPERIMENT_2_RESULT = ( "As post-manipulation myth belief levels remained below pre-manipulation belief levels, " "no true backfire effect was elicited." ) SWIRE_2017_CONCLUSION = ( "However, we found no evidence for the existence of a true familiarity-based backfire " "effect." ) GORDON_2019_RESULT = ( "Experiment 2 clarified that only-negated narratives produced significantly fewer " "misinformation inferences than a control condition in which the misinformation was " "never mentioned." ) GORDON_2019_QUALIFIER = prose( "Participants mentioned the critical information significantly less following a negation " "than if that information was never mentioned, although the corresponding Bayesian " "analysis indicated only very weak evidence for a difference between the two, meaning " "that this interpretation must be made with some caution." ) RICH_2016_EXPERIMENT_1_RESULT = ( "The correction did not reliably affect performance in the control condition (Contrast 7)." ) RICH_2016_EXPERIMENT_2_RESULT = ( "The pattern of results replicated those of Experiment 1, with the exception that the " "correction reduced misinformation reliance even in the control condition." ) RICH_2016_EXPERIMENT_2_ALL_CONDITIONS = ( "there was a reliable correction effect in all three conditions (including the control " "condition, see Contrasts 7, 8, and 9)" ) RICH_2016_CONTROL_QUALIFIER = ( "may have, to a small extent, implicated the son as a potential suspect" ) CARNAHAN_2020_CONTROL_RESULT = ( "participants receiving a corrective message scored four to five points (or 10–12%) " "higher on the belief accuracy measure than those in the control group" ) CARNAHAN_2020_PAIRWISE_RESULT = ( "pairwise comparisons between each of the correction treatment groups and the control " "group found these differences to be statistically significant (p < .05)." ) CARNAHAN_2020_FORMAT_NULL = "none of the coefficients on message format are significant" CARNAHAN_2020_PROCESSING_BOUNDARY = ( "Among those in the MB processing condition, both two-sided messages outperformed the " "one-sided message." ) PRIKE_2023_COUNTER_SEARCH = ( "However, there is little empirical evidence in support of this familiarity backfire " "effect (Cameron et al., 2013; Ecker et al., 2017; Ecker et al., 2020c; Ecker et al., " "2023; Kemp et al., 2022a, 2022b; Swire et al., 2017; Wahlheim et al., 2020; for " "reviews, see Ecker et al., 2022; Swire-Thompson et al., 2022)." ) PRIKE_2023_GORDON_SEARCH = ( "Although these accounts offer some theoretical justification for why standalone " "corrections may backfire, some previous studies using standalone corrections without " "initial misinformation exposure have not found any evidence of deleterious effects " "(Ecker et al., 2020b, 2020c; Gordon et al., 2019)." ) NIBAT_2026_SEARCH_OVERVIEW = prose( "Some studies report no evidence of a familiarity backfire effect (e.g., Ecker et al., " "2019, 2023; Swire et al., 2017) and even show repetition can enhance correction " "effectiveness (Ecker et al., 2017; Kemp et al., 2022; Wahlheim et al., 2020).", "Other work finds that corrections increase belief in misinformation or reliance on it, " "especially when brief and minimal, as with fact-checking labels (e.g., Berinsky, 2017; " "Peter & Koch, 2016; Pluviano et al., 2017, 2019; Skurnik et al., 2005).", ) WILSON_PARK_2008_METHOD = ( "Younger and older adults read positively and negatively worded statements and were " "later tested for memory of the exact statements, statements opposite in meaning due " "to the addition or deletion of a negation, and entirely new statements." ) WILSON_PARK_2008_RESULT = ( "When statements reversed meanings, younger adults were more likely to accurately " "recognize items that changed from negative to positive than were older adults, who " "were more likely to incorrectly endorse changed items as intact when items began " "negative and became positive than the reverse." ) BERINSKY_2017_NO_CONTROL = "There was no control group in this experiment." BERINSKY_2017_REHEARSAL_RESULT = ( "The increased rehearsal of the rumor – in the absence of any information about its " "veracity – was sufficient to decrease rumor rejection rates, even when the rumor was " "initially presented in combination with a powerful correction." ) BERINSKY_2017_REHEARSAL_QUALIFIER = ( "though the differences are statistically significant at the 0.10 level only in the " "‘rumor only’ condition" ) ECKER_HOGAN_2017_RESULT = ( "Retractions that explicitly repeated the misinformation were more effective in reducing " "misinformation effects than retractions that avoided repetition, presumably because of " "enhanced salience." ) ECKER_HOGAN_2017_NO_RETRACTION_RESULT = ( "any kind of retraction reduced reliance on misinformation compared to a control condition " "with no retraction" ) ECKER_HOGAN_2017_REPEAT_RESULT = ( "a retraction that explicitly repeated the misinformation (condition RER) lowered reliance " "on misinformation more than a retraction that provided no reminder (condition RNR)" ) ECKER_HOGAN_2017_ALTERNATIVE_ACCOUNT = ( "each retraction was accompanied by an alternative causal account of the event" ) WAHLHEIM_2020_DESIGN = ( "Misinformation reminders appeared before some corrections but not others." ) WAHLHEIM_2020_ENDPOINT = ( "Subjects then attempted to recall facts, indicated their belief in those recalls, and " "indicated whether they remembered corrections and misinformation." ) WAHLHEIM_2020_RESULT = "Reminders increased recall and belief accuracy." KEMP_2022A_DESIGN = ( "Two experiments examined if one theory better accounts for memory updating after " "participants recalled actual fake news details when reading headlines that corrected " "misinformation." ) KEMP_2022A_MIXED_RESULT = ( "Recalling fake news when noticing corrections in Phase 2 led to better memory for real " "news in Phase 3 when fake news was recalled again and worse memory for real news in " "Phase 3 when fake news was not recalled again." ) KEMP_2022A_CONTROL_BOUNDARY = prose( "Phase 2 included 45 headlines [15 real news from Phase 1 (Repetition); 15 real news that " "corrected fake news from Phase 1 (Correction); and 15 real news that appeared only in " "Phase 2 (Control)].", "We included control headlines as a contrast condition against which to assess proactive " "effects of fake news exposure on memory for real news headlines.", ) KEMP_2022B_DESIGN = ( "Participants then saw labeled and unlabeled real news corrections; labeled corrections " "appeared alone or after fake news reminders." ) KEMP_2022B_RESULT = ( "Reminders promoted the best memory and belief accuracy, whereas veracity labels had " "selective effects." ) KEMP_2022B_LIMITATION = prose( "However, this does not fully isolate the fake news reminder effect because that would " "require a condition including fake news reminders alone (i.e., not followed by corrections)." ) PETER_KOCH_2016_RESULT = ( "In a web-based experiment, we find evidence for a systematic backfire effect that occurs " "after a few minutes and strengthens after five days." ) PETER_KOCH_2016_SHARED_STIMULUS = ( "the journalist reported eight scientific statements about the test and identified each " "statement immediately as true or false, followed by a short explanation" ) PETER_KOCH_2016_RANDOMIZATION = ( "Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions." ) PETER_KOCH_2016_MEASURE = ( "For each claim, we asked participants to indicate whether it was labeled as “true” or " "“false” in the article or whether it had not been presented in the article (“new”)." ) PETER_KOCH_2016_ERROR_DEFINITION = ( "labeling an originally false statement as true (backfire error)" ) def source_works() -> list[dict[str, Any]]: return [ { "key": "work-skurnik-2005", "kind": "paper", "title": "How Warnings about False Claims Become Recommendations", "creators": ["Ian Skurnik", "Carolyn Yoon", "Denise C. Park", "Norbert Schwarz"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1086/426605", "license": ( "All rights reserved in the examined journal PDF; only two short attributed " "abstract sentences are retained and the PDF is not redistributed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-handbook-2011", "kind": "webpage", "title": "The Debunking Handbook Part 2: The Familiarity Backfire Effect", "creators": ["John Cook", "Stephan Lewandowsky"], "canonical_uri": ( "https://skepticalscience.com/" "Debunking-Handbook-Part-2-Familiarity-Backfire-Effect.html" ), "license": ( "Copyright notice present and no page-wide reuse license confirmed; only " "short attributed excerpts and one bibliographic reference are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-schwarz-2016", "kind": "paper", "title": "Making the Truth Stick & the Myths Fade: Lessons from Cognitive Psychology", "creators": ["Norbert Schwarz", "Eryn Newman", "William Leach"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1177/237946151600200110", "license": ( "No article-specific Creative Commons grant was visible in the exact 2016 " "publisher rendition; it is treated as restricted and only quote-minimal " "transcript extents and metadata are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-peter-koch-2016", "kind": "paper", "title": "When Debunking Scientific Myths Fails (and When It Does Not)", "creators": ["Christina Peter", "Thomas Koch"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547015613523", "license": ( "The LMU institutional full text carries no confirmed open reuse grant; only " "quote-minimal attributed result and method spans are retained and the PDF " "is not redistributed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-wilson-park-2008", "kind": "paper", "title": "A Case for Clarity in the Writing of Health Statements", "creators": ["Elizabeth A. H. Wilson", "Denise C. Park"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2008.02.008", "license": ( "No open article reuse license was confirmed; only two quote-minimal " "attributed PubMed abstract spans are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-berinsky-2017", "kind": "paper", "title": "Rumors and Health Care Reform: Experiments in Political Misinformation", "creators": ["Adam J. Berinsky"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123415000186", "license": ( "No open reuse license was confirmed for the author-hosted journal PDF; only " "three quote-minimal attributed design, result, and qualifier spans are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-cameron-2013", "kind": "paper", "title": ( "Patient Knowledge and Recall of Health Information Following Exposure to " "\u201cFacts and Myths\u201d Message Format Variations" ), "creators": [ "Kenzie A. Cameron", "Michael E. Roloff", "Elisha M. Friesema", "Tiffany Brown", "Borko D. Jovanovic", "Sara Hauber", "David W. Baker", ], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2013.06.017", "license": ( "The examined NCBI author-manuscript XML permits text mining and fair-use " "treatment but states no open reuse license; only short attributed abstract " "results are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-ecker-2020", "kind": "paper", "title": ( "Can corrections spread misinformation to new audiences? Testing for the " "elusive familiarity backfire effect" ), "creators": ["Ullrich K. H. Ecker", "Stephan Lewandowsky", "Matthew Chadwick"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00241-6", "license": "Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-ecker-short-2020", "kind": "paper", "title": "The effectiveness of short‐format refutational fact‐checks", "creators": ["Ullrich K. H. Ecker", "Ziggy O’Reilly", "Jesse S. Reid", "Ee Pin Chang"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12383", "license": ( "Crossref identifies both accepted-manuscript and version-of-record content " "as Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0; one short " "attributed abstract result is retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-ecker-hogan-2017", "kind": "paper", "title": ( "Reminders and Repetition of Misinformation: Helping or Hindering Its Retraction?" ), "creators": ["Ullrich K. H. Ecker", "Joshua L. 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Peske"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620952797", "license": ( "No open reuse license was confirmed for the coauthor-lab publisher PDF; only " "three quote-minimal attributed abstract sentences are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-kemp-2022a", "kind": "paper", "title": ( "Recalling Fake News During Real News Corrections Can Impair or Enhance " "Memory Updating: The Role of Recollection-Based Retrieval" ), "creators": ["Paige L. Kemp", "Timothy R. Alexander", "Christopher N. Wahlheim"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-022-00434-1", "license": "Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-kemp-2022b", "kind": "paper", "title": ( "Fake News Reminders and Veracity Labels Differentially Benefit Memory and " "Belief Accuracy for News Headlines" ), "creators": ["Paige L. Kemp", "Vanessa M. Loaiza", "Christopher N. 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Zaragoza"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000155", "license": ( "APA makes the journal PDF publicly readable but no open reuse license was " "confirmed; only quote-minimal result and design fragments are retained." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-swire-2017", "kind": "paper", "title": "The Role of Familiarity in Correcting Inaccurate Information", "creators": ["Briony Swire", "Ullrich K. H. Ecker", "Stephan Lewandowsky"], "canonical_uri": "https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000422", "license": ( "No open reuse license was confirmed for the coauthor-lab manuscript; only " "three quote-minimal attributed result sentences are retained and the PDF " "is not redistributed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "work-gordon-2019", "kind": "paper", "title": "Polarity and Attitude Effects in the Continued-Influence Paradigm", "creators": ["Andrew Gordon", "Ullrich K. H. 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Disentangling the competing effects of " "repetition and fact-checking corrections of brand misinformation" ), "creators": [ "Ipek N. 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abstract sentences 1–2", SKURNIK_SUMMARY, ), span( "span-handbook-claim", "edition-handbook-2011", 0, "2011 body claim", HANDBOOK_CLAIM, ), span( "span-handbook-advice", "edition-handbook-2011", 1, "2011 body advice", HANDBOOK_ADVICE, ), span( "span-handbook-experiment", "edition-handbook-2011", 2, "2011 body flu-vaccine flyer description", HANDBOOK_EXPERIMENT, ), span( "span-handbook-delay", "edition-handbook-2011", 3, "2011 body 30-minute delayed result", HANDBOOK_DELAY, ), span( "span-handbook-reference", "edition-handbook-2011", 4, "Reference 1", HANDBOOK_REFERENCE, ), span( "span-handbook-update", "edition-handbook-2011", 5, "2020 update notice", HANDBOOK_UPDATE, ), span( "span-schwarz-claim", "edition-schwarz-2016", 0, "Publisher HTML abstract opening", SCHWARZ_CLAIM, ), span( "span-schwarz-skurnik-2005-delay", "edition-schwarz-2016", 1, "PDF p. 6 / journal p. 90, delayed result sentence", SCHWARZ_SKURNIK_2005_DELAY, ), span( "span-schwarz-skurnik-2005-older", "edition-schwarz-2016", 2, "PDF p. 6 / journal p. 90, older-adult sentence", SCHWARZ_SKURNIK_2005_OLDER, ), span( "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "edition-schwarz-2016", 3, "PDF p. 7 / journal p. 91, flu-flyer memory sentence", SCHWARZ_FLU_2007_MEMORY, ), span( "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "edition-schwarz-2016", 4, "PDF p. 7 / journal p. 91, flu-flyer intentions sentence", SCHWARZ_FLU_2007_INTENTIONS, ), span( "span-schwarz-reference-6", "edition-schwarz-2016", 5, "PDF p. 10, reference 6", SCHWARZ_REFERENCE_6, ), span( "span-schwarz-reference-42", "edition-schwarz-2016", 6, "PDF p. 10, reference 42", SCHWARZ_REFERENCE, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-result", "edition-ecker-2020", 0, "General discussion result", ECKER_2020_RESULT, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach", "edition-ecker-2020", 1, "General discussion practical implications opening", ECKER_2020_GUIDANCE_OVERREACH, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion", "edition-ecker-2020", 2, "General discussion practical implications conclusion", ECKER_2020_GUIDANCE_CONCLUSION, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", "edition-ecker-2020", 3, "Introduction paragraph 7, unpublished 2007 lineage", ECKER_2020_UNPUBLISHED_LINEAGE, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline", "edition-ecker-2020", 4, "Introduction paragraph 7, missing-baseline qualification", ECKER_2020_NO_BASELINE, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-recruitment", "edition-ecker-2020", 5, "Experiment 1 participants", ECKER_2020_RECRUITMENT, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-cloudresearch", "edition-ecker-2020", 6, "Experiment 1 procedure administration platform", ECKER_2020_CLOUDRESEARCH, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-ecker-2011-search", "edition-ecker-2020", 7, "Introduction paragraph 8 Ecker et al. 2011 exclusion", ECKER_2020_ECKER_2011_SEARCH, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-ecker-2017-search", "edition-ecker-2020", 8, "Introduction paragraph 8 Ecker et al. 2017 exclusion", ECKER_2020_ECKER_2017_SEARCH, ), span( "span-ecker-2020-swire-2017-search", "edition-ecker-2020", 9, "Introduction paragraph 8 Swire et al. 2017 search lead", ECKER_2020_SWIRE_2017_SEARCH, ), span( "span-peter-koch-2016-result", "edition-peter-koch-2016", 0, "Crossref abstract web-experiment result", PETER_KOCH_2016_RESULT, ), span( "span-peter-koch-2016-shared-stimulus", "edition-peter-koch-2016", 1, "PDF p. 10 / journal p. 12, shared myths-and-facts stimulus", PETER_KOCH_2016_SHARED_STIMULUS, ), span( "span-peter-koch-2016-randomization", "edition-peter-koch-2016", 2, "PDF p. 11 / journal p. 13, randomized instruction condition", PETER_KOCH_2016_RANDOMIZATION, ), span( "span-peter-koch-2016-measure", "edition-peter-koch-2016", 3, "PDF p. 11 / journal p. 13, truth-memory measure", PETER_KOCH_2016_MEASURE, ), span( "span-peter-koch-2016-error-definition", "edition-peter-koch-2016", 4, "PDF p. 12 / journal p. 14, backfire-error definition", PETER_KOCH_2016_ERROR_DEFINITION, ), span( "span-wilson-park-2008-method", "edition-wilson-park-2008", 0, "PubMed abstract, Methods", WILSON_PARK_2008_METHOD, ), span( "span-wilson-park-2008-result", "edition-wilson-park-2008", 1, "PubMed abstract, Results", WILSON_PARK_2008_RESULT, ), span( "span-berinsky-2017-no-control", "edition-berinsky-2017", 0, "PDF p. 14 / journal p. 254, Study 2 design", BERINSKY_2017_NO_CONTROL, ), span( "span-berinsky-2017-rehearsal-result", "edition-berinsky-2017", 1, "PDF p. 17 / journal p. 257, rehearsal result", BERINSKY_2017_REHEARSAL_RESULT, ), span( "span-berinsky-2017-rehearsal-qualifier", "edition-berinsky-2017", 2, "PDF p. 17 / journal p. 257, correction-arm significance qualifier", BERINSKY_2017_REHEARSAL_QUALIFIER, ), span( "span-cameron-2013-knowledge", "edition-cameron-2013", 0, "BioC abstract knowledge-score result", CAMERON_2013_KNOWLEDGE, ), span( "span-cameron-2013-no-counterproductive", "edition-cameron-2013", 1, "BioC abstract no-counterproductive-recall conclusion", CAMERON_2013_NO_COUNTERPRODUCTIVE, ), span( "span-ecker-short-2020-result", "edition-ecker-short-2020", 0, "Crossref abstract simple-retraction result", ECKER_SHORT_2020_RESULT, ), span( "span-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "edition-ecker-hogan-2017", 0, "Accepted manuscript p. 3, abstract result", ECKER_HOGAN_2017_RESULT, ), span( "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "edition-ecker-hogan-2017", 1, "Accepted manuscript p. 18, retraction-versus-control result", ECKER_HOGAN_2017_NO_RETRACTION_RESULT, ), span( "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "edition-ecker-hogan-2017", 2, "Accepted manuscript p. 18, explicit-repeat contrast", ECKER_HOGAN_2017_REPEAT_RESULT, ), span( "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", "edition-ecker-hogan-2017", 3, "Accepted manuscript p. 18, alternative-account qualifier", ECKER_HOGAN_2017_ALTERNATIVE_ACCOUNT, ), span( "span-wahlheim-2020-design", "edition-wahlheim-2020", 0, "PDF p. 1, abstract design", WAHLHEIM_2020_DESIGN, ), span( "span-wahlheim-2020-endpoint", "edition-wahlheim-2020", 1, "PDF p. 1, abstract endpoint", WAHLHEIM_2020_ENDPOINT, ), span( "span-wahlheim-2020-result", "edition-wahlheim-2020", 2, "PDF p. 1, abstract result", WAHLHEIM_2020_RESULT, ), span( "span-kemp-2022a-design", "edition-kemp-2022a", 0, "JATS abstract, design", KEMP_2022A_DESIGN, ), span( "span-kemp-2022a-mixed-result", "edition-kemp-2022a", 1, "JATS abstract, mixed conditional result", KEMP_2022A_MIXED_RESULT, ), span( "span-kemp-2022a-control-boundary", "edition-kemp-2022a", 2, "JATS Par21, control-endpoint boundary", KEMP_2022A_CONTROL_BOUNDARY, ), span( "span-kemp-2022b-design", "edition-kemp-2022b", 0, "JATS abstract, correction/reminder design", KEMP_2022B_DESIGN, ), span( "span-kemp-2022b-result", "edition-kemp-2022b", 1, "JATS abstract, reminder result", KEMP_2022B_RESULT, ), span( "span-kemp-2022b-limitation", "edition-kemp-2022b", 2, "JATS Par27, reminder-isolation limitation", KEMP_2022B_LIMITATION, ), span( "span-carnahan-2020-control-result", "edition-carnahan-garrett-2020", 0, "Study 2 results, correction-versus-control result", CARNAHAN_2020_CONTROL_RESULT, ), span( "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "edition-carnahan-garrett-2020", 1, "Study 2 results, control-pairwise result", CARNAHAN_2020_PAIRWISE_RESULT, ), span( "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "edition-carnahan-garrett-2020", 2, "Study 2 results, message-format null", CARNAHAN_2020_FORMAT_NULL, ), span( "span-carnahan-2020-processing-boundary", "edition-carnahan-garrett-2020", 3, "Study 2 results, memory-based processing boundary", CARNAHAN_2020_PROCESSING_BOUNDARY, ), span( "span-rich-2016-experiment-1-result", "edition-rich-zaragoza-2016", 0, "PDF p. 5 / journal p. 66, Experiment 1 correction effect", RICH_2016_EXPERIMENT_1_RESULT, ), span( "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-result", "edition-rich-zaragoza-2016", 1, "PDF p. 7 / journal p. 68, Experiment 2 control result", RICH_2016_EXPERIMENT_2_RESULT, ), span( "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-all-conditions", "edition-rich-zaragoza-2016", 2, "PDF p. 7 / journal p. 68, Experiment 2 correction effects", RICH_2016_EXPERIMENT_2_ALL_CONDITIONS, ), span( "span-rich-2016-control-qualifier", "edition-rich-zaragoza-2016", 3, "PDF p. 5 / journal p. 66, control-story qualifier", RICH_2016_CONTROL_QUALIFIER, ), span( "span-swire-2017-experiment-1-result", "edition-swire-2017", 0, "Manuscript p. 16, Experiment 1 result", SWIRE_2017_EXPERIMENT_1_RESULT, ), span( "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "edition-swire-2017", 1, "Manuscript p. 22, Experiment 2 result", SWIRE_2017_EXPERIMENT_2_RESULT, ), span( "span-swire-2017-conclusion", "edition-swire-2017", 2, "Manuscript p. 30, discussion conclusion", SWIRE_2017_CONCLUSION, ), span( "span-gordon-2019-result", "edition-gordon-2019", 0, "Preprint p. 32, Experiment 2 discussion", GORDON_2019_RESULT, ), span( "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "edition-gordon-2019", 1, "Preprint p. 24, Bayesian result qualifier", GORDON_2019_QUALIFIER, ), span( "span-prike-2023-result", "edition-prike-2023", 0, "Abstract results and qualification", PRIKE_2023_RESULT, ), span( "span-prike-2023-recruitment", "edition-prike-2023", 1, "Experiment 1 participants", PRIKE_2023_RECRUITMENT, ), span( "span-prike-2023-ethics", "edition-prike-2023", 2, "Ethics approval", PRIKE_2023_ETHICS, ), span( "span-prike-2023-autry-sample", "edition-prike-2023", 3, "General discussion sample comparison", PRIKE_2023_AUTRY_SAMPLE, ), span( "span-prike-2023-counter-search", "edition-prike-2023", 4, "Introduction, bounded counterevidence search", PRIKE_2023_COUNTER_SEARCH, ), span( "span-prike-2023-gordon-search", "edition-prike-2023", 5, "Introduction, standalone-correction search", PRIKE_2023_GORDON_SEARCH, ), span( "span-ecker-2023-result", "edition-ecker-2023", 0, "Abstract outcome", ECKER_2023_RESULT, ), span( "span-ecker-2023-recruitment", "edition-ecker-2023", 1, "Method participants", ECKER_2023_RECRUITMENT, ), span( "span-ecker-2023-materials", "edition-ecker-2023", 2, "Method materials source", ECKER_2023_MATERIALS, ), span( "span-ecker-2023-ethics", "edition-ecker-2023", 3, "Method ethics approval", ECKER_2023_ETHICS, ), span( "span-autry-2021-result", "edition-autry-2021", 0, "Crossref abstract result", AUTRY_2021_RESULT, ), span( "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "edition-autry-2021", 1, "Publisher HTML general-discussion qualifier", AUTRY_2021_QUALIFIER, ), span( "span-autry-2021-timing-limit", "edition-autry-2021", 2, "Publisher HTML limitations timing and persistence", AUTRY_2021_TIMING_LIMIT, ), span( "span-pluviano-2017-result", "edition-pluviano-2017", 0, "Results vaccine-autism comparison", PLUVIANO_2017_RESULT, ), span( "span-pluviano-2017-limitation", "edition-pluviano-2017", 1, "Discussion limitations paragraph 8", PLUVIANO_2017_LIMITATION, ), span( "span-pluviano-2019-result", "edition-pluviano-2019", 0, "Accepted manuscript abstract result", PLUVIANO_2019_RESULT, ), span( "span-pluviano-2019-dependence", "edition-pluviano-2019", 1, "Procedure comparison with prior study", PLUVIANO_2019_DEPENDENCE, ), span( "span-thomas-2024-result", "edition-thomas-2024", 0, "Crossref abstract result", THOMAS_2024_RESULT, ), span( "span-thomas-2024-mechanism", "edition-thomas-2024", 1, "Crossref abstract mechanism", THOMAS_2024_MECHANISM, ), span( "span-nibat-2026-scope", "edition-nibat-2026", 0, "PDF p. 1 abstract scope", NIBAT_2026_SCOPE, ), span( "span-nibat-2026-result", "edition-nibat-2026", 1, "PDF p. 1 abstract result", NIBAT_2026_RESULT, ), span( "span-nibat-2026-search-overview", "edition-nibat-2026", 2, "PDF p. 3, bounded literature overview", NIBAT_2026_SEARCH_OVERVIEW, ), span( "span-swire-thompson-2022-result", "edition-swire-thompson-2022", 0, "BioC abstract design, controls, and no-backfire result", SWIRE_THOMPSON_2022_RESULT, ), ] propositions = [ { "key": "prop-general-backfire", "text": ( "Repeating misinformation inside an evidence-based correction generally " "makes recipients believe or rely on the misinformation more than a " "no-correction or pre-correction baseline." ), "scope": ( "Group-level familiarity backfire from corrective repetition; excludes " "continued influence, worldview backfire, and one-person anecdotes." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-older-adult-result", "text": ( "Skurnik et al. reported delayed misremembering of warned-against consumer " "claims among older adults in two experiments, but the study lacked the " "no-correction or pre-correction baseline required by this dossier’s target." ), "scope": "Older adults, consumer claims, and the tested delays in the 2005 paper.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-guidance-overreach", "text": ( "Some communicator guidance advised avoiding repetition more generally than " "the later experimental record warranted." ), "scope": "The recommendation sources named by Ecker et al. 2020.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-skepticism-boundary", "text": ( "Skepticism toward a correction may be a boundary condition under which a " "standalone correction can backfire on some measures." ), "scope": ( "Prike et al. 2023 Experiment 3; open-ended response result did not repeat " "on the rating-scale measure." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "text": ( "An unpublished 2007 study reportedly found worse myth classification and " "lower flu-vaccination intentions after a myths-and-facts flyer than in the " "relevant control conditions." ), "scope": ( "Skurnik, Yoon, and Schwarz 2007 participant data as described in later " "publications; the manuscript and participant-level record remain unavailable." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "text": ( "A standalone negated correction can increase later use of a previously unseen " "claim when the negation lacks contextual licensing, although the exact effect " "did not reach significance in every experiment." ), "scope": ( "Autry and Duarte 2021 and Thomas and Autry 2024; novel or unexpected negated " "details, not all correction formats." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "text": ( "Two vaccine-message studies reported delayed outcomes worse than control for " "myths-and-facts formats, while a later direct replication using the same " "materials did not reproduce the effect." ), "scope": ( "Pluviano et al. 2017 and 2019 positive reports and Ecker et al. 2023 " "replication; vaccine beliefs and intentions in their tested samples." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-peter-koch-boundary", "text": ( "Peter and Koch reported a delayed backfire effect after journalistic " "myth-and-fact coverage, but all participants read the correction article " "and the study had no no-correction or pre-correction belief baseline." ), "scope": ( "Peter and Koch 2016 web experiment; truth-memory errors after the shared " "article, not target-comparable belief or reliance above baseline." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-cameron-flu-result", "text": ( "Cameron et al. found knowledge gains across flu-message conditions and no " "evidence that presenting facts and myths was counterproductive to recall " "accuracy." ), "scope": ( "Cameron et al. 2013 randomized flu-message study; knowledge and recall " "outcomes over the tested one-week interval." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-short-format-result", "text": ( "Simple retractions reduced false-claim belief and did not show a " "familiarity-driven backfire effect in the Ecker et al. short-format series." ), "scope": "Ecker et al. 2020 short-format fact-check experiments and tested delays.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "text": ( "In Ecker, Hogan, and Lewandowsky 2017, every retraction reduced " "misinformation reliance relative to no retraction, and a retraction that " "explicitly repeated the misinformation reduced reliance more than a " "retraction without a reminder." ), "scope": ( "Ecker, Hogan, and Lewandowsky 2017; fictional event reports, inferential " "reasoning, and one publication-defined participant-data series." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-carnahan-2020-result", "text": ( "In Carnahan and Garrett Study 2, every correction format—including two " "formats that repeated the misinformation—improved belief accuracy versus " "an unrelated-story control, with no overall disadvantage for repetition." ), "scope": ( "Carnahan and Garrett 2020 Study 2; GMO belief accuracy, one-sided and two-" "sided corrections, processing-style moderation, and a true control." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-rich-2016-result", "text": ( "Across two experiments, presenting a correction in a control narrative that " "contained no explicit misinformation did not increase misinformation " "reliance: Experiment 1 was null and Experiment 2 reduced reliance." ), "scope": ( "Rich and Zaragoza 2016; control narratives mentioned the son but did not " "explicitly implicate him, so residual pragmatic licensing remains a design " "qualifier." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-swire-2017-result", "text": ( "Across two experiments and delays up to three weeks, myth belief rebounded " "but remained below each experiment's pre-correction baseline; the authors " "reported no true familiarity backfire effect." ), "scope": ( "Swire, Ecker, and Lewandowsky 2017; younger and older-adult samples, brief " "and detailed corrections, and pre-correction belief baselines." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-gordon-2019-result", "text": ( "In Gordon et al. Experiment 2, a standalone negation produced fewer " "misinformation inferences than a no-misinformation control rather than a " "familiarity-driven increase." ), "scope": ( "Gordon, Ecker, and Lewandowsky 2019 Experiment 2; only-negated narrative " "versus a no-misinformation control; Bayesian evidence for the observed " "difference was very weak." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-reliability-counter-result", "text": ( "Across two correction-versus-test-retest experiments, no item backfired " "relative to the control or initial-belief baselines." ), "scope": ( "Swire-Thompson et al. 2022; 21 items and two " "participant samples." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "prop-brand-correction-result", "text": ( "Across five brand-misinformation studies, repetition did not increase belief " "more than correction reduced it." ), "scope": ( "Nibat et al. 2026; corporate misinformation, fact-check labels, brand " "familiarity, immediate and delayed tests, and first-exposure corrections." ), "visibility": "public", }, ] lineages = [ { "key": "lineage-skurnik-2005-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": ["span-skurnik-summary", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-skurnik-result"], "note": ( "Published 2005 participant-data root. Its older-adult and consumer-claim " "scope must not silently become a general population result, and the paper " "did not include the baseline required for target-comparable backfire." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-skurnik-2007-data", "status": "unknown", "dimensions": ["data", "method", "apparatus"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Unknown participant-data root for the unpublished Skurnik, Yoon, and " "Schwarz 2007 flu-flyer manuscript. Later sources describe the result, but " "the manuscript, data, sample record, and direct edition remain unavailable." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-handbook-guidance", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["source", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-skurnik-2007-data"], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-handbook-reference", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-handbook-claim"], "note": ( "The page describes the 30-minute flu-flyer study but its sole numbered " "reference names the nonmatching 2005 paper. Later literature identifies the " "described data as the unpublished 2007 study, so the page adds a mention and " "guidance, not a participant-data root." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-schwarz-general-review", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["source", "method", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-skurnik-2005-data", "lineage-skurnik-2007-data"], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-claim", "span-schwarz-skurnik-2005-delay", "span-schwarz-skurnik-2005-older", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-schwarz-reference-42", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-schwarz-claim"], "note": ( "Review-level synthesis, not participant data. The publisher PDF maps its " "2005 delayed older-adult passage to reference 42 and its separate flu-flyer " "passage to reference 6; the latter leads to the unknown 2007 data root." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-schwarz-flu-review", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["source", "method"], "depends_on": ["lineage-skurnik-2007-data"], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-schwarz-flu-result"], "note": ( "The 2016 flu-flyer passage cites the 2007 Schwarz et al. review, while Ecker " "et al. 2020 identifies that review as discussing the unpublished 2007 " "participant data. This is a review mention, not a new data root." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-historical-report", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["source", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-skurnik-2007-data"], "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-ecker-2020-historical-report"], "note": ( "A historical report of the unpublished 2007 participant-data lineage, not " "a new participant-data root. It receives no independent data credit." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-result", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-ecker-2020-result"], "note": ( "One participant-data root for the Ecker et al. 2020 publication. Method " "and recruitment overlap are modeled separately so they do not collapse " "this paper-defined data collection into another data root." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-peter-koch-2016-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-peter-koch-2016-result", "span-peter-koch-2016-shared-stimulus", "span-peter-koch-2016-randomization", "span-peter-koch-2016-measure", "span-peter-koch-2016-error-definition", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-peter-koch-2016-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined participant-data root for a delayed journalistic " "myth-debunking result. The full method confirms that all participants read " "the correction article and only judgment instructions varied, so the data " "root is known but not target-comparable." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-cameron-2013-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-cameron-2013-knowledge", "span-cameron-2013-no-counterproductive", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-cameron-2013-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined participant-data root for the randomized flu-message " "study. Its CDC condition belongs to the historical flu-flyer family, but " "the participant collection is separately reported." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "social"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-recruitment", "span-ecker-2020-cloudresearch", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Recruitment-method lineage for the US MTurk and CloudResearch frame, " "including the 5000-HIT and 97% approval thresholds." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-short-2020-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-short-2020-result"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-ecker-short-2020-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined two-experiment participant-data root. It shares Ecker " "and a correction research program with later papers, but no data reuse is " "asserted." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-ecker-hogan-2017-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined participant-data root directly comparing no retraction, " "retraction without a reminder, and retractions with subtle or explicit " "misinformation reminders. Every retraction also supplied an alternative " "causal account; method and research-program overlap are modeled separately." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "social"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Continued-influence retraction-method lineage. All tested retractions paired " "the correction with an alternative causal account, and Ecker and Lewandowsky " "also appear in the later Gordon research program." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-carnahan-garrett-2020-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-carnahan-2020-control-result", "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "span-carnahan-2020-processing-boundary", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-carnahan-garrett-2020-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined participant-data root. Study 2 provides the target-" "comparable control; Study 1 lacks a true control and receives no separate " "target-comparable credit." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-rich-2016-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-rich-2016-experiment-1-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-all-conditions", "span-rich-2016-control-qualifier", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-rich-2016-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined participant-data root. Both experiments compare a " "correction in a no-explicit-misinformation control narrative with the " "uncorrected control; the narrative still mentioned the correction target." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-swire-2017-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-swire-2017-experiment-1-result", "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "span-swire-2017-conclusion", "span-prike-2023-counter-search", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-swire-2017-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined two-experiment participant-data root. It shares Ecker " "and Lewandowsky with other correction research but reports distinct younger " "and older-adult collections; program independence is not claimed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-gordon-2019-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "span-prike-2023-gordon-search", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-gordon-2019-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined participant-data root. Experiment 2 directly compares " "an only-negated narrative with a no-misinformation control; its continued-" "influence paradigm is a material standalone-correction boundary. Method and " "research-program overlap are modeled separately." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-gordon-2019-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-method"], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "span-prike-2023-gordon-search", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Continued-influence standalone-correction method lineage. Shared Ecker and " "Lewandowsky authorship and research-program overlap mean a separate program " "is not claimed; participant data remain a distinct root." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-interpretation", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["source", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-ecker-2020-data"], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-ecker-2020-guidance"], "note": "Interpretive guidance derived from the paper's participant-data series.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-prike-2023-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": ["span-prike-2023-result"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-prike-2023-result", "assert-prike-2023-skepticism"], "note": ( "Separately reported participant-data root. It shares authors and a research " "program with Ecker et al. 2023 and shares the US MTurk/CloudResearch frame " "and thresholds with Ecker et al. 2020. Cross-paper participant overlap is " "unverified; only the paper-defined data collection is counted separately." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-prike-2023-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "social"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-prike-2023-recruitment", "span-prike-2023-ethics", "span-prike-2023-autry-sample", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Method and research-team lineage. The MTurk frame matches Ecker et al. " "2020, while authors and the UWA ethics series overlap Ecker et al. 2023." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-2023-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2023-result"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-ecker-2023-result"], "note": ( "Separately reported UK Prolific participant-data root. It shares Ecker and " "Swire-Thompson, UWA ethics approval RA/4/20/6423, and a research program with " "Prike et al. 2023, and it directly reuses Pluviano et al. 2017 materials. " "Team, ethics, and material independence are not claimed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-ecker-2023-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "apparatus", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-pluviano-2017-method"], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2023-recruitment", "span-ecker-2023-materials", "span-ecker-2023-ethics", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Replication method and apparatus lineage. It directly reused the 2017 " "stimuli and overlaps the Prike research program in authors and ethics approval." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-autry-2021-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit", "span-prike-2023-autry-sample", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-autry-2021-result"], "note": ( "Separately reported undergraduate participant-data root. Experiment 1 found " "the unlicensed-negation effect; the same contrast was nonsignificant in " "Experiment 2. It shares Autry and a research program with Thomas 2024." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-pluviano-2017-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-pluviano-2017-result"], "note": ( "Participant-data root for the 2017 student vaccine-message study. It shares " "authors, a vaccine-message research program, and materials with the 2019 " "study and the later Ecker et al. replication." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-pluviano-2017-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "apparatus", "social"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation", ], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Student-sample vaccine-message method lineage. Later work reused or " "deliberately compared against this material and timing family." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-pluviano-2019-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2019-result", "span-pluviano-2019-dependence", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-pluviano-2019-result"], "note": ( "Separately reported parent participant-data root. It remains part of the " "same Pluviano author and vaccine-message program as the 2017 study, so " "program-level independence is not claimed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-pluviano-2019-method", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["method", "apparatus", "social"], "depends_on": ["lineage-pluviano-2017-method"], "basis_span_keys": ["span-pluviano-2019-dependence"], "assertion_keys": [], "note": ( "Parent-sample method lineage. The seven-day delay was explicitly chosen " "to allow straight comparison with the authors' 2017 study." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-thomas-2024-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": ["span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-thomas-2024-result"], "note": ( "Separately reported participant-data root testing unlicensed negated " "corrections with novel-word meanings. It shares Autry and a research program " "with Autry and Duarte 2021; program independence is not claimed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-nibat-2026-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-nibat-2026-scope", "span-nibat-2026-result", "span-nibat-2026-search-overview", ], "assertion_keys": ["assert-nibat-2026-result"], "note": ( "Separately reported participant-data root spanning five brand-misinformation " "studies and 4,337 participants. Author, sample, and method independence from " "the earlier paper series is not inferred merely from different authorship." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "lineage-swire-thompson-2022-data", "status": "known", "dimensions": ["data"], "depends_on": [], "basis_span_keys": ["span-swire-thompson-2022-result"], "assertion_keys": ["assert-swire-thompson-2022-result"], "note": ( "Publication-defined two-experiment participant-data root. Swire-Thompson " "also appears in other modeled papers, but the captured report describes new " "samples and no data-reuse dependence is asserted." ), "visibility": "public", }, ] assertions = [ { "key": "assert-skurnik-result", "proposition_key": "prop-older-adult-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1086/426605#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-skurnik-summary", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline"], "lineage_key": "lineage-skurnik-2005-data", "asserted_at": "2005-03-01T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-handbook-claim", "proposition_key": "prop-general-backfire", "actor": {"id": "web:debunking-handbook-2011#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-handbook-claim", "span-handbook-advice", "span-handbook-reference", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-handbook-guidance", "asserted_at": "2011-11-18T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-schwarz-claim", "proposition_key": "prop-general-backfire", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1177/237946151600200110#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-schwarz-claim"], "lineage_key": "lineage-schwarz-general-review", "asserted_at": "2016-04-01T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-schwarz-flu-result", "proposition_key": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1177/237946151600200110#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-schwarz-flu-review", "asserted_at": "2016-04-01T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-ecker-2020-historical-report", "proposition_key": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00241-6#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage"], "lineage_key": "lineage-ecker-2020-historical-report", "asserted_at": "2020-08-26T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-peter-koch-2016-result", "proposition_key": "prop-peter-koch-boundary", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1177/1075547015613523#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-peter-koch-2016-result", "span-peter-koch-2016-shared-stimulus", "span-peter-koch-2016-randomization", "span-peter-koch-2016-measure", "span-peter-koch-2016-error-definition", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-peter-koch-2016-data", "asserted_at": "2015-10-25T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-cameron-2013-result", "proposition_key": "prop-cameron-flu-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1016/j.pec.2013.06.017#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-cameron-2013-knowledge", "span-cameron-2013-no-counterproductive", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-cameron-2013-data", "asserted_at": "2013-09-01T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-ecker-2020-result", "proposition_key": "prop-general-backfire", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00241-6#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "questions", "span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-result", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-ecker-2020-data", "asserted_at": "2020-08-26T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-ecker-2020-guidance", "proposition_key": "prop-guidance-overreach", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00241-6#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach"], "lineage_key": "lineage-ecker-2020-interpretation", "asserted_at": "2020-08-26T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-ecker-short-2020-result", "proposition_key": "prop-short-format-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1111/bjop.12383#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-ecker-short-2020-result"], "lineage_key": "lineage-ecker-short-2020-data", "asserted_at": "2019-03-02T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "proposition_key": "prop-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "actor": { "id": "doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.014#authors", "kind": "collective", }, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-data", "asserted_at": "2017-03-18T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-carnahan-garrett-2020-result", "proposition_key": "prop-carnahan-2020-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1093/ijpor/edz037#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-carnahan-2020-control-result", "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "span-carnahan-2020-processing-boundary", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-carnahan-garrett-2020-data", "asserted_at": "2019-10-19T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-rich-2016-result", "proposition_key": "prop-rich-2016-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1037/xlm0000155#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-rich-2016-experiment-1-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-all-conditions", "span-rich-2016-control-qualifier", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-rich-2016-data", "asserted_at": "2015-07-06T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-swire-2017-result", "proposition_key": "prop-swire-2017-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1037/xlm0000422#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-swire-2017-experiment-1-result", "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "span-swire-2017-conclusion", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-swire-2017-data", "asserted_at": "2017-05-11T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-gordon-2019-result", "proposition_key": "prop-gordon-2019-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1016/j.jml.2019.104028#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier"], "lineage_key": "lineage-gordon-2019-data", "asserted_at": "2019-06-04T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-prike-2023-result", "proposition_key": "prop-general-backfire", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1186/s41235-023-00492-z#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "questions", "span_keys": ["span-prike-2023-result"], "lineage_key": "lineage-prike-2023-data", "asserted_at": "2023-07-03T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-prike-2023-skepticism", "proposition_key": "prop-skepticism-boundary", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1186/s41235-023-00492-z#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "hypothesizes", "span_keys": ["span-prike-2023-result"], "lineage_key": "lineage-prike-2023-data", "asserted_at": "2023-07-03T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-ecker-2023-result", "proposition_key": "prop-general-backfire", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281140#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "questions", "span_keys": ["span-ecker-2023-result"], "lineage_key": "lineage-ecker-2023-data", "asserted_at": "2023-04-12T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-autry-2021-result", "proposition_key": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1002/acp.3823#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit", ], "lineage_key": "lineage-autry-2021-data", "asserted_at": "2021-03-31T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-pluviano-2017-result", "proposition_key": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181640#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation"], "lineage_key": "lineage-pluviano-2017-data", "asserted_at": "2017-07-27T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-pluviano-2019-result", "proposition_key": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1007/s10339-019-00919-w#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-pluviano-2019-result", "span-pluviano-2019-dependence"], "lineage_key": "lineage-pluviano-2019-data", "asserted_at": "2019-04-08T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-thomas-2024-result", "proposition_key": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1002/acp.70004#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism"], "lineage_key": "lineage-thomas-2024-data", "asserted_at": "2024-11-09T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-nibat-2026-result", "proposition_key": "prop-brand-correction-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2026.03.007#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-nibat-2026-scope", "span-nibat-2026-result"], "lineage_key": "lineage-nibat-2026-data", "asserted_at": "2026-03-27T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "assert-swire-thompson-2022-result", "proposition_key": "prop-reliability-counter-result", "actor": {"id": "doi:10.1037/xge0001131#authors", "kind": "collective"}, "stance": "asserts", "span_keys": ["span-swire-thompson-2022-result"], "lineage_key": "lineage-swire-thompson-2022-data", "asserted_at": "2022-07-01T00:00:00Z", "visibility": "public", }, ] relations = [ { "key": "relation-skurnik-supports-older-adult-result", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-skurnik-result", "to_ref": "prop-older-adult-result", "basis_span_keys": ["span-skurnik-summary", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline"], "note": ( "Preserves the reported delayed older-adult result while separating it from " "the dossier's target-comparable general claim." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-skurnik-qualifies-general", "relation_type": "qualification", "from_ref": "assert-skurnik-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-skurnik-summary", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline"], "note": ( "Shows a narrower delayed older-adult effect but lacks the baseline required " "to establish target-comparable backfire." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-handbook-supports-general", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-handbook-claim", "span-handbook-advice", ], "note": ( "A broad public-facing claim and recommendation rooted in the described " "30-minute flu-flyer result." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-schwarz-supports-general", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-schwarz-claim", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-schwarz-claim"], "note": ( "A broad review-level mention; its concrete 2005 and flu-flyer examples are " "represented separately rather than treated as new data." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-handbook-depends-skurnik-2007", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-handbook-guidance", "to_ref": "lineage-skurnik-2007-data", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", ], "note": ( "Later literature identifies the page’s flu-flyer/30-minute result as the " "unpublished 2007 data, not the 2005 paper named in its sole reference." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-handbook-citation-mismatch", "relation_type": "undercutting", "from_ref": "span-handbook-reference", "to_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-handbook-reference", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline", ], "note": ( "The visible reference names the 2005 older-adult consumer-claim study, whose " "design does not match the page’s flu-flyer/30-minute description." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-schwarz-flu-depends-skurnik-2007", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-schwarz-flu-review", "to_ref": "lineage-skurnik-2007-data", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", ], "note": ( "The PDF’s flu-flyer passage cites reference 6, and Ecker et al. identify that " "review as the public discussion of the unpublished 2007 data." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-schwarz-flu-supports-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-schwarz-flu-result", "to_ref": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", ], "note": "A review-level report of the unresolved flu-flyer participant data.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-historical-supports-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-historical-report", "to_ref": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage"], "note": ( "A later historical report identifies the unpublished 2007 manuscript; " "it is not credited as newly collected participant data." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-update-qualifies-handbook", "relation_type": "qualification", "from_ref": "span-handbook-update", "to_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "basis_span_keys": ["span-handbook-update"], "note": "The live page now directs readers to newer treatment of the effect.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-2020-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-result", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion", ], "note": ( "Later experiments did not reproduce a general effect in their tested conditions." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-cameron-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-cameron-2013-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-cameron-2013-knowledge", "span-cameron-2013-no-counterproductive", ], "note": ( "A randomized flu-message study reported gains across conditions and no " "counterproductive facts-and-myths recall result." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-short-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-short-2020-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-short-2020-result"], "note": "Simple retractions reduced belief without the proposed backfire.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-hogan-2017-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", ], "note": ( "Every tested retraction reduced reliance relative to no retraction, and " "explicit misinformation repetition improved the retraction relative to no " "reminder. Every retraction also supplied an alternative causal account." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-carnahan-2020-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-carnahan-garrett-2020-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-carnahan-2020-control-result", "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "span-carnahan-2020-processing-boundary", ], "note": ( "Both correction formats that repeated misinformation improved accuracy " "relative to control; processing style remains a material qualifier." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-rich-2016-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-rich-2016-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-rich-2016-experiment-1-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-all-conditions", "span-rich-2016-control-qualifier", ], "note": ( "A correction in the no-explicit-misinformation control did not increase " "reliance in either experiment; the target's prior narrative mention is " "retained as a licensing qualifier." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-swire-2017-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-swire-2017-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-swire-2017-experiment-1-result", "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "span-swire-2017-conclusion", ], "note": ( "Both experiments retained corrected belief below the pre-correction " "baseline despite delayed regression." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-gordon-2019-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-gordon-2019-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier"], "note": ( "The standalone negation lowered rather than raised misinformation inference " "relative to the no-misinformation control in Experiment 2, with only very " "weak Bayesian evidence for the difference." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-swire-thompson-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-swire-thompson-2022-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-swire-thompson-2022-result"], "note": ( "Two correction-versus-control experiments found no item-level backfire " "relative to either comparison baseline." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-undercuts-guidance", "relation_type": "undercutting", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-guidance", "to_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach"], "note": ( "Challenges the inference from familiarity concern to blanket repetition advice." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-undercuts-review", "relation_type": "undercutting", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-guidance", "to_ref": "assert-schwarz-claim", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach"], "note": "Challenges broad review-level wording using later experimental evidence.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-prike-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-prike-2023-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-prike-2023-result"], "note": ( "No immediate or delayed effect in two experiments; third result was " "measure-specific." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-prike-qualifies-boundary", "relation_type": "qualification", "from_ref": "assert-prike-2023-skepticism", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-prike-2023-result"], "note": ( "Preserves the induced-skepticism open-response result as an unresolved boundary." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-2023-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2023-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2023-result"], "note": "A separate vaccine-context study did not observe the predicted effect.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-autry-qualifies-general", "relation_type": "qualification", "from_ref": "assert-autry-2021-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit", ], "note": ( "Preserves an unlicensed-negation boundary while recording that the same " "contrast was nonsignificant in Experiment 2 and longer-interval persistence " "remains unresolved." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-autry-supports-unlicensed-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-autry-2021-result", "to_ref": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit", ], "note": "Supports the narrower unlicensed-negation boundary, with qualifiers.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-pluviano-2017-supports-vaccine-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-pluviano-2017-result", "to_ref": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation", ], "note": ( "A target-comparable delayed myths-and-facts result in a student sample, " "subject to the paper's convenience-sample and generalizability limits." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-pluviano-2019-supports-vaccine-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-pluviano-2019-result", "to_ref": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2019-result", "span-pluviano-2019-dependence", ], "note": ( "A target-comparable delayed myths-and-facts result in a parent sample from " "the same author and comparison-method program as the 2017 study." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-thomas-qualifies-general", "relation_type": "qualification", "from_ref": "assert-thomas-2024-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism"], "note": ( "Preserves a target-comparable unlicensed-negation result and its proposed " "Gricean mechanism without generalizing it to all corrections." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-thomas-supports-unlicensed-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-thomas-2024-result", "to_ref": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "basis_span_keys": ["span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism"], "note": "Supports the narrower unlicensed-negation boundary and proposed mechanism.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-peter-koch-supports-boundary", "relation_type": "support", "from_ref": "assert-peter-koch-2016-result", "to_ref": "prop-peter-koch-boundary", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-peter-koch-2016-result", "span-peter-koch-2016-shared-stimulus", "span-peter-koch-2016-randomization", "span-peter-koch-2016-measure", "span-peter-koch-2016-error-definition", ], "note": ( "Preserves the delayed truth-memory result while the full method establishes " "that no target baseline was present." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-nibat-rebuts-general", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "from_ref": "assert-nibat-2026-result", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "basis_span_keys": ["span-nibat-2026-scope", "span-nibat-2026-result"], "note": "Five brand-misinformation studies did not observe familiarity backfire.", "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-2023-failed-replication-pluviano-2017", "relation_type": "failed-replication", "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2023-result", "to_ref": "assert-pluviano-2017-result", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2023-result", "span-ecker-2023-materials"], "note": ( "The later study reused the 2017 materials but did not reproduce the reported " "backfire effect." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-gordon-ecker-hogan-shared-program", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-gordon-2019-method", "to_ref": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-method", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "span-prike-2023-gordon-search", ], "note": ( "The papers share Ecker and Lewandowsky and a continued-influence correction " "program. Their participant collections remain distinct, but independent " "research-program credit is not claimed." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-prike-shared-recruitment-frame", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-prike-2023-method", "to_ref": "lineage-ecker-2020-method", "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-recruitment", "span-ecker-2020-cloudresearch", "span-prike-2023-recruitment", ], "note": ( "Both papers used US MTurk workers through CloudResearch with the same " "5000-HIT and 97% approval thresholds; cross-paper participant overlap is " "unreported." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-prike-shared-ethics-series", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-ecker-2023-method", "to_ref": "lineage-prike-2023-method", "basis_span_keys": ["span-prike-2023-ethics", "span-ecker-2023-ethics"], "note": ( "The papers share authors and UWA ethics approval RA/4/20/6423; they are " "separate reported data collections, not independent research programs." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-ecker-2023-reuses-pluviano-materials", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-ecker-2023-method", "to_ref": "lineage-pluviano-2017-method", "basis_span_keys": ["span-ecker-2023-materials"], "note": ( "The replication directly reused the 2017 stimuli, so material lineage is " "shared even though participant data were newly collected." ), "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "relation-pluviano-2019-reuses-comparison-method", "relation_type": "dependence", "from_ref": "lineage-pluviano-2019-method", "to_ref": "lineage-pluviano-2017-method", "basis_span_keys": ["span-pluviano-2019-dependence"], "note": ( "The 2019 study chose its seven-day delay to allow direct comparison with " "the authors' 2017 study; the participant-data roots remain distinct." ), "visibility": "public", }, ] material = { "format": DOSSIER_FORMAT, "title": "Does repeating misinformation in a correction make it more believable?", "question": ( "When a correction repeats a false claim, does familiarity generally cause " "belief or reliance to rise above an uncorrected or pre-correction baseline?" ), "scope": ( "A lineage audit of the familiarity backfire claim. Independent counts refer " "to participant-data roots, not complete independence of authors, methods, or " "research programs. Worldview backfire and continued influence are distinct." ), "stage": "draft", "visibility": "public", "source_works": source_works(), "editions": editions(), "spans": spans, "propositions": propositions, "lineages": lineages, "assertions": assertions, "evidence_relations": relations, "claim_families": [ { "key": "family-familiarity-backfire", "title": "Familiarity backfire from corrective repetition", "question": ( "Does repeating misinformation within a correction generally make the " "misinformation more believable?" ), "proposition_keys": [record["key"] for record in propositions], "assertion_keys": [record["key"] for record in assertions], "relation_keys": [record["key"] for record in relations], "visibility": "public", } ], "evaluations": [ { "key": "evaluation-encyclopedia", "claim_family_key": "family-familiarity-backfire", "policy_id": "em:application-policy:encyclopedia-v0.1", "frontier": "research-candidate-em-0019", "label": ( "Target-comparable backfire appears in some tested formats and contexts, " "while replications and later studies also report counterevidence. The " "record does not warrant a blanket rule against repeating misinformation " "inside corrections, and the causal mechanism remains unresolved." ), "reason_codes": [ "target-comparable-support-preserved", "counterevidence-preserved", "baseline-mismatch-preserved", "skepticism-boundary-unresolved", "mechanism-attribution-unresolved", ], "visibility": "public", }, { "key": "evaluation-skeptical", "claim_family_key": "family-familiarity-backfire", "policy_id": "em:application-policy:skeptical-v0.1", "frontier": "research-candidate-em-0019", "label": ( "No universal rule is admitted: supportive scope was overgeneralized, " "the unpublished 2007 data remain unresolved, and both supportive and " "counterevidence papers cluster in overlapping author, material, and " "method programs despite distinct participant-data roots." ), "reason_codes": [ "unpublished-data-lineage-unresolved", "team-and-method-overlap", "measure-specific-qualifier", "population-and-context-limits", ], "visibility": "public", }, ], } return stamp_dossier(material) TARGET_COMPARABLE_SUPPORT_PROPOSITIONS = { "prop-flu-flyer-result", "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", } def assertion_keys_for_relation_type(candidate: dict[str, Any], relation_type: str) -> list[str]: assertion_keys = {record["key"] for record in candidate["assertions"]} return sorted( { record["from_ref"] for record in candidate["evidence_relations"] if record["relation_type"] == relation_type and record["from_ref"] in assertion_keys } ) def derived_counts(candidate: dict[str, Any]) -> dict[str, Any]: assertions = {record["key"]: record for record in candidate["assertions"]} lineages = {record["key"]: record for record in candidate["lineages"]} apparent_support_assertions = assertion_keys_for_relation_type(candidate, "support") counter_assertions = assertion_keys_for_relation_type(candidate, "rebuttal") review_report_assertions = sorted( key for key in apparent_support_assertions if "data" not in lineages[assertions[key]["lineage_key"]]["dimensions"] ) target_comparable_assertions = sorted( key for key in apparent_support_assertions if assertions[key]["proposition_key"] in TARGET_COMPARABLE_SUPPORT_PROPOSITIONS ) supportive = independence_summary(candidate, apparent_support_assertions) target_comparable = independence_summary(candidate, target_comparable_assertions) counter = independence_summary(candidate, counter_assertions) return { "modeled_apparent_support_assertions": len(apparent_support_assertions), "apparent_support_assertion_keys": apparent_support_assertions, "known_supporting_data_roots": supportive["independent_lineage_count"], "unresolved_support_data_roots": supportive["unknown_lineage_count"], "support_root_keys": supportive["independent_lineage_roots"], "unresolved_support_keys": supportive["unknown_lineages"], "target_comparable_supporting_data_roots": target_comparable["independent_lineage_count"], "target_comparable_support_root_keys": target_comparable["independent_lineage_roots"], "target_comparable_unresolved_data_roots": target_comparable["unknown_lineage_count"], "target_comparable_unresolved_keys": target_comparable["unknown_lineages"], "modeled_review_report_assertions_without_new_data_credit": len(review_report_assertions), "review_report_assertion_keys": review_report_assertions, "modeled_counterevidence_assertions": len(counter_assertions), "counter_assertion_keys": counter_assertions, "modeled_counterevidence_data_roots": counter["independent_lineage_count"], "counterevidence_root_keys": counter["independent_lineage_roots"], "counting_unit": ( "One participant-data lineage per publication-defined data series. Multiple " "experiments within one publication are collapsed; separate publications with " "separately reported samples remain roots unless data reuse is evidenced. Author, " "method, material, and research-program overlap remain disclosed separately." ), "derivation_rule": ( "Apparent-support and counterevidence assertion keys are the unique assertion " "endpoints of modeled support and rebuttal relations. Review/report keys are the " "support endpoints whose own lineage has no data dimension; root counts are then " "computed by independence_summary." ), } def write_candidate(candidate: dict[str, Any]) -> None: CANDIDATE_PATH.write_text( json.dumps(candidate, indent=2, sort_keys=True, ensure_ascii=False) + "\n", encoding="utf-8", ) def check_candidate(candidate: dict[str, Any]) -> None: validate_dossier(candidate) recorded = json.loads(CANDIDATE_PATH.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) validate_dossier(recorded) if canonical_json(recorded) != canonical_json(candidate): raise SystemExit(f"generated candidate drift: run {Path(__file__).name} --write") print( json.dumps({"dossier_id": candidate["dossier_id"], **derived_counts(candidate)}, indent=2) ) def main() -> None: parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() mode = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True) mode.add_argument("--write", action="store_true") mode.add_argument("--check", action="store_true") args = parser.parse_args() candidate = build_candidate() if args.write: write_candidate(candidate) print(CANDIDATE_PATH) else: check_candidate(candidate) if __name__ == "__main__": main()