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In fact, both Experiments 2 and 3 yielded substantial evidence against the presence of a familiarity backfire effect, even under conditions that should maximize reliance on familiarity and thus facilitate occurrence of familiarity backfire, viz. the combination of novel claims that maximized the familiarity boost conveyed by first exposure, a relatively long 1-week retention interval, and correction encoding under cognitive load (the load condition of Experiment 3).", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "General discussion; practical implications opening", "text": "The practical implications of this research are clear: recommendations to front-line educators and communicators to entirely avoid repeating misinformation when debunking (Cook & Lewandowsky, 2011; Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Peter & Koch, 2016; Schwarz et al., 2007, 2016) were unwarranted.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "General discussion; practical implications conclusion", "text": "Finally, the present study suggests that exposure to a correction does not cause familiarity backfire relative to a no-exposure control even with novel claims, and thus corrections do not seem to spread misinformation to new audiences easily.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Introduction; paragraph 7; unpublished 2007 lineage", "text": "the only clear demonstration of a familiarity backfire effect was reported in an unpublished manuscript by Skurnik, Yoon, and Schwarz (2007; discussed by Schwarz et al., 2007)", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Introduction; paragraph 7; missing-baseline qualification", "text": "the study also did not feature a baseline condition against which to access actual “backfire.”", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Experiment 1; participants", "text": "Participants were US-based adult Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) workers, who had completed at least 5000 so-called human-intelligence tasks (HITs) with 97% + approval.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Experiment 1; procedure; administration platform", "text": "The experiment was administered using Qualtrics survey software (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) via the CloudResearch platform (formerly TurkPrime; Litman, Robinson, & Abberbock, 2017).", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Introduction; paragraph 8; Ecker et al. 2011 search exclusion", "text": "unlike Skurnik et al. 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However, there was some mixed evidence suggesting corrections may backfire when there is skepticism regarding the correction (Experiment 3). Specifically, in Experiment 3, we found the standalone correction to backfire in open-ended responses, but only when there was skepticism towards the correction. However, this did not replicate with the rating scales measure.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Experiment 1; participants", "text": "To account for potential exclusions and ensure ample statistical power, 283 participants were recruited from the online testing platform Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) via CloudResearch (Litman et al., 2017). Participants were eligible if they resided in the United States of America and had previously completed more than 5000 MTurk tasks (HITs) with a minimum approval rating of 97%.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Ethics approval", "text": "All procedures were approved by the University of Western Australia’s Human Research Ethics Office (Ethics ID: RA/4/20/6423).", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "General discussion; sample comparison", "text": "Additionally, Autry and Duarte only sampled undergraduates whereas our participants were recruited from MTurk without any age restrictions.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Introduction; bounded counterevidence search", "text": "However, there is little empirical evidence in support of this familiarity backfire effect (Cameron et al., 2013; Ecker et al., 2017; Ecker et al., 2020c; Ecker et al., 2023; Kemp et al., 2022a, 2022b; Swire et al., 2017; Wahlheim et al., 2020; for reviews, see Ecker et al., 2022; Swire-Thompson et al., 2022).", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Introduction; standalone-correction search", "text": "Although these accounts offer some theoretical justification for why standalone corrections may backfire, some previous studies using standalone corrections without initial misinformation exposure have not found any evidence of deleterious effects (Ecker et al., 2020b, 2020c; Gordon et al., 2019).", "verification": "artifact" } ] }, "content_digest": "sha256:5b02d38fc7eef16540cc808fa7d4300bcd9613180d3bfa98ad51169182fdb6c0", "content_length": 2592, "edition_label": "Europe PMC JATS XML, PMCID PMC10317933; excerpt packet", "id": "em:dossier-edition:sha256:0b0390469f562099baf4aa24f693be88f9e4649d5814abc9ff0417a4212fe6fb", "key": "edition-prike-2023", "media_type": "application/json", "retrieved_at": "2026-08-22T06:13:51Z", "visibility": "public", "work_key": "work-prike-2023" }, { "content": { "artifact": { "bytes": 167791, "custody": "Temporary CC BY 4.0 XML download; exact excerpts committed.", "retrieved_from": "https://www.ebi.ac.uk/europepmc/webservices/rest/PMC10096191/fullTextXML", "sha256": "44ebae212686059b211ae7a9e8757958d8851d73b51513c6f9a2f9c9a518f88e" }, "excerpts": [ { "locator": "Abstract; outcome sentences", "text": "We found that the myths vs. facts condition reduced vaccine misconceptions. None of the conditions increased vaccine misconceptions relative to control at either timepoint, or relative to a pre-intervention baseline; thus, no backfire effects were observed. This failure to replicate adds to the mounting evidence against familiarity backfire effects and has implications for vaccination communications and the design of debunking interventions.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Method; participants", "text": "To additionally account for an expected drop-out rate of 15% between T1 and T2, a convenience sample of 440 UK-based participants was recruited using Prolific.", "verification": "artifact" }, { "locator": "Method; materials source", "text": "Stimuli were taken directly from Pluviano et al. 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its concrete 2005 and flu-flyer examples are represented separately rather than treated as new data.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage" ], "from_ref": "lineage-handbook-guidance", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:870ed29610f2f60bea6f5b05d62e715074cf25b39a4bcedc87fcc4632338bcc0", "key": "relation-handbook-depends-skurnik-2007", "note": "Later literature identifies the page’s flu-flyer/30-minute result as the unpublished 2007 data, not the 2005 paper named in its sole reference.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-skurnik-2007-data", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-handbook-reference", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline" ], "from_ref": "span-handbook-reference", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:3bf25c4394888d05b5dd466d5ec657076f8e1bade0a22758a9f14d71a323823e", "key": "relation-handbook-citation-mismatch", "note": "The visible reference names the 2005 older-adult consumer-claim study, whose design does not match the page’s flu-flyer/30-minute description.", "relation_type": "undercutting", "to_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage" ], "from_ref": "lineage-schwarz-flu-review", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:e71a03ba29b8de5360cd5531f059743874add650be4c3d9e70896441e48c7b8b", "key": "relation-schwarz-flu-depends-skurnik-2007", "note": "The PDF’s flu-flyer passage cites reference 6, and Ecker et al. identify that review as the public discussion of the unpublished 2007 data.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-skurnik-2007-data", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6" ], "from_ref": "assert-schwarz-flu-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:2a396a64848b0d610f7a7952c85bceddcf575e946f39f4e9ffe5f984829dff8b", "key": "relation-schwarz-flu-supports-boundary", "note": "A review-level report of the unresolved flu-flyer participant data.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-historical-report", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:5778ad6d282edbe93ac15d54b73d714bb007a436110e758d73082ba3691449f9", "key": "relation-ecker-historical-supports-boundary", "note": "A later historical report identifies the unpublished 2007 manuscript; it is not credited as newly collected participant data.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-update" ], "from_ref": "span-handbook-update", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:d94e6fc56326b6dd5d12f970a9d36cebee2fc73d85826e607022ac19113787a1", "key": "relation-update-qualifies-handbook", "note": "The live page now directs readers to newer treatment of the effect.", "relation_type": "qualification", "to_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-result", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:2642c1e286c80408fa6843c6b6927af39841a25208889765be61507c08df828b", "key": "relation-ecker-2020-rebuts-general", "note": "Later experiments did not reproduce a general effect in their tested conditions.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-cameron-2013-knowledge", "span-cameron-2013-no-counterproductive" ], "from_ref": "assert-cameron-2013-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:f226326edad0c727233471b69aeb69885f6a107809796163addd5f561a69bcea", "key": "relation-cameron-rebuts-general", "note": "A randomized flu-message study reported gains across conditions and no counterproductive facts-and-myths recall result.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-short-2020-result" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-short-2020-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:88342e147b4b41b48576371292386084bb587052b2bf6912824989d53c99a182", "key": "relation-ecker-short-rebuts-general", "note": "Simple retractions reduced belief without the proposed backfire.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:dc735edaa2c3530d7722db7ebe3cb98ed6fe2f47c75ccaf5bc90b1904de3e166", "key": "relation-ecker-hogan-2017-rebuts-general", "note": "Every tested retraction reduced reliance relative to no retraction, and explicit misinformation repetition improved the retraction relative to no reminder. Every retraction also supplied an alternative causal account.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-carnahan-2020-control-result", "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "span-carnahan-2020-processing-boundary" ], "from_ref": "assert-carnahan-garrett-2020-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:d051ad69ef7dd5f6021e51e5430164ed83eff4eacea6e989d102d50d160a0034", "key": "relation-carnahan-2020-rebuts-general", "note": "Both correction formats that repeated misinformation improved accuracy relative to control; processing style remains a material qualifier.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-rich-2016-experiment-1-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-all-conditions", "span-rich-2016-control-qualifier" ], "from_ref": "assert-rich-2016-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:401a30f91e825751362b823d089ae5e10082f83f3cda8f785beccefa67ded5bc", "key": "relation-rich-2016-rebuts-general", "note": "A correction in the no-explicit-misinformation control did not increase reliance in either experiment; the target's prior narrative mention is retained as a licensing qualifier.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-swire-2017-experiment-1-result", "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "span-swire-2017-conclusion" ], "from_ref": "assert-swire-2017-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:948587dc8853c0ccd76af5a5f9f23a209d2b8585f53849b89ed300ec7b3f8855", "key": "relation-swire-2017-rebuts-general", "note": "Both experiments retained corrected belief below the pre-correction baseline despite delayed regression.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier" ], "from_ref": "assert-gordon-2019-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:6f0112586df73a304057c3c9601ffb6415bb4415d283eff6523e81ca1d8202e2", "key": "relation-gordon-2019-rebuts-general", "note": "The standalone negation lowered rather than raised misinformation inference relative to the no-misinformation control in Experiment 2, with only very weak Bayesian evidence for the difference.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-swire-thompson-2022-result" ], "from_ref": "assert-swire-thompson-2022-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:72da19cb6af87d6c6ee19a17eee02e218b91b86bec5a2f7dc6899c211a54ae30", "key": "relation-swire-thompson-rebuts-general", "note": "Two correction-versus-control experiments found no item-level backfire relative to either comparison baseline.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-guidance", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:b7f326f46c02f14bf192620938c81f7f2a6e0bf282399901606cd159fa9c6bf5", "key": "relation-ecker-undercuts-guidance", "note": "Challenges the inference from familiarity concern to blanket repetition advice.", "relation_type": "undercutting", "to_ref": "assert-handbook-claim", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2020-guidance", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:029e2e8719afdc57c81ad84ca79fed64b49b954e42397287439ead9b9b0353c8", "key": "relation-ecker-undercuts-review", "note": "Challenges broad review-level wording using later experimental evidence.", "relation_type": "undercutting", "to_ref": "assert-schwarz-claim", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-prike-2023-result" ], "from_ref": "assert-prike-2023-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:ab8796188784822b2490b52c65066fdf6adb7ed201b3a93d7d9c119c5e6730b8", "key": "relation-prike-rebuts-general", "note": "No immediate or delayed effect in two experiments; third result was measure-specific.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-prike-2023-result" ], "from_ref": "assert-prike-2023-skepticism", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:07cc3b3d226bbd04fb07616344ea1fdf879db6ebe893b10773aef0513525b870", "key": "relation-prike-qualifies-boundary", "note": "Preserves the induced-skepticism open-response result as an unresolved boundary.", "relation_type": "qualification", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2023-result" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2023-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:0daa67719412e996594c2f2c51d2126106fbf8c025554a01423fb8aec2469212", "key": "relation-ecker-2023-rebuts-general", "note": "A separate vaccine-context study did not observe the predicted effect.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit" ], "from_ref": "assert-autry-2021-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:7d7e99e277ee272a591a38ac4f6f84fd145514932ce0158a2ee4232c8e6adb6e", "key": "relation-autry-qualifies-general", "note": "Preserves an unlicensed-negation boundary while recording that the same contrast was nonsignificant in Experiment 2 and longer-interval persistence remains unresolved.", "relation_type": "qualification", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit" ], "from_ref": "assert-autry-2021-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:597e0d3e047a0540fa59cad2395152bfe1fdc488aae9960b77ad0956eb5c9dd5", "key": "relation-autry-supports-unlicensed-boundary", "note": "Supports the narrower unlicensed-negation boundary, with qualifiers.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation" ], "from_ref": "assert-pluviano-2017-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:3dfb8f9ef24dbd5d669c20770cef0e5c79df2e00c275f7ec06903c48affd2d1b", "key": "relation-pluviano-2017-supports-vaccine-boundary", "note": "A target-comparable delayed myths-and-facts result in a student sample, subject to the paper's convenience-sample and generalizability limits.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2019-result", "span-pluviano-2019-dependence" ], "from_ref": "assert-pluviano-2019-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:7d9c4238b9a8ce9691f6de1fbb2ed6b81eee42ac59e79e3b8025516c484e290b", "key": "relation-pluviano-2019-supports-vaccine-boundary", "note": "A target-comparable delayed myths-and-facts result in a parent sample from the same author and comparison-method program as the 2017 study.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism" ], "from_ref": "assert-thomas-2024-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:ae5292395bca9615e84712ffec21592cbb783dd184a8b97a050d19e239641c69", "key": "relation-thomas-qualifies-general", "note": "Preserves a target-comparable unlicensed-negation result and its proposed Gricean mechanism without generalizing it to all corrections.", "relation_type": "qualification", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism" ], "from_ref": "assert-thomas-2024-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:a28899252a77634b139620daa50c82dc7d5349db5b90896500621900957a104c", "key": "relation-thomas-supports-unlicensed-boundary", "note": "Supports the narrower unlicensed-negation boundary and proposed mechanism.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-peter-koch-2016-result", "span-peter-koch-2016-shared-stimulus", "span-peter-koch-2016-randomization", "span-peter-koch-2016-measure", "span-peter-koch-2016-error-definition" ], "from_ref": "assert-peter-koch-2016-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:a8d98e42e053757edf655166d848290a697fe3307f007b9bc2d113cccb1b1ad6", "key": "relation-peter-koch-supports-boundary", "note": "Preserves the delayed truth-memory result while the full method establishes that no target baseline was present.", "relation_type": "support", "to_ref": "prop-peter-koch-boundary", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-nibat-2026-scope", "span-nibat-2026-result" ], "from_ref": "assert-nibat-2026-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:a60b1d01a86ab0d6c43d18d10a47cd70196cc20aa900361707469815c3d86d9c", "key": "relation-nibat-rebuts-general", "note": "Five brand-misinformation studies did not observe familiarity backfire.", "relation_type": "rebuttal", "to_ref": "prop-general-backfire", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2023-result", "span-ecker-2023-materials" ], "from_ref": "assert-ecker-2023-result", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:6eb8f7978f44d565d2741d7b67a0b0f51a9c9846220ea5a695cd938d325909e9", "key": "relation-ecker-2023-failed-replication-pluviano-2017", "note": "The later study reused the 2017 materials but did not reproduce the reported backfire effect.", "relation_type": "failed-replication", "to_ref": "assert-pluviano-2017-result", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account", "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "span-prike-2023-gordon-search" ], "from_ref": "lineage-gordon-2019-method", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:f35179648dbc1c03e015d5141786120f68f8dad85abe59dd4466d3d6536d8dde", "key": "relation-gordon-ecker-hogan-shared-program", "note": "The papers share Ecker and Lewandowsky and a continued-influence correction program. Their participant collections remain distinct, but independent research-program credit is not claimed.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-method", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-recruitment", "span-ecker-2020-cloudresearch", "span-prike-2023-recruitment" ], "from_ref": "lineage-prike-2023-method", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:17d8fc2107bb7511f302cbf3fb07a28817d7573106daf068e2f841c6dbe9bee1", "key": "relation-ecker-prike-shared-recruitment-frame", "note": "Both papers used US MTurk workers through CloudResearch with the same 5000-HIT and 97% approval thresholds; cross-paper participant overlap is unreported.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-ecker-2020-method", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-prike-2023-ethics", "span-ecker-2023-ethics" ], "from_ref": "lineage-ecker-2023-method", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:b78c38d93535392b7f54cf15ddef906c176142b436e180f9f5a68632bbe3b0c1", "key": "relation-ecker-prike-shared-ethics-series", "note": "The papers share authors and UWA ethics approval RA/4/20/6423; they are separate reported data collections, not independent research programs.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-prike-2023-method", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2023-materials" ], "from_ref": "lineage-ecker-2023-method", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:caed12c4a5610eb9867fd628a8f30f2487d32f88f83b5277bad2bb0f167f4e6c", "key": "relation-ecker-2023-reuses-pluviano-materials", "note": "The replication directly reused the 2017 stimuli, so material lineage is shared even though participant data were newly collected.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-pluviano-2017-method", "visibility": "public" }, { "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2019-dependence" ], "from_ref": "lineage-pluviano-2019-method", "id": "em:dossier-evidence-relation:sha256:315e680107a597e4d7b83f009bbe97bdb5cf5dcaf1c09185fe0e7a57116d3470", "key": "relation-pluviano-2019-reuses-comparison-method", "note": "The 2019 study chose its seven-day delay to allow direct comparison with the authors' 2017 study; the participant-data roots remain distinct.", "relation_type": "dependence", "to_ref": "lineage-pluviano-2017-method", "visibility": "public" } ], "format": "epistemedia-dossier-v0.1", "lineages": [ { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-skurnik-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-skurnik-summary", "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:435922f83b6e523c8fae783695a674e2ee644fc9ffc1de6dcb6e246dc6680c40", "key": "lineage-skurnik-2005-data", "note": "Published 2005 participant-data root. Its older-adult and consumer-claim scope must not silently become a general population result, and the paper did not include the baseline required for target-comparable backfire.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data", "method", "apparatus" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:bcdc8f465086810c43d44ee4421818d87928b2234df8f8749f14d2d3a83d0bc3", "key": "lineage-skurnik-2007-data", "note": "Unknown participant-data root for the unpublished Skurnik, Yoon, and Schwarz 2007 flu-flyer manuscript. Later sources describe the result, but the manuscript, data, sample record, and direct edition remain unavailable.", "status": "unknown", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-handbook-claim" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-handbook-experiment", "span-handbook-delay", "span-handbook-reference", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-skurnik-2007-data" ], "dimensions": [ "source", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:77440f0deb11ae9d41304f1b572c55a3ecdf680f0833d8a4b13fc5f6173dee16", "key": "lineage-handbook-guidance", "note": "The page describes the 30-minute flu-flyer study but its sole numbered reference names the nonmatching 2005 paper. Later literature identifies the described data as the unpublished 2007 study, so the page adds a mention and guidance, not a participant-data root.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-schwarz-claim" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-claim", "span-schwarz-skurnik-2005-delay", "span-schwarz-skurnik-2005-older", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-schwarz-reference-42" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-skurnik-2005-data", "lineage-skurnik-2007-data" ], "dimensions": [ "source", "method", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:1006c88fa939a3bfc4c0a2099ccb8ff242437716ce06786b9be5520ee1cd0e99", "key": "lineage-schwarz-general-review", "note": "Review-level synthesis, not participant data. The publisher PDF maps its 2005 delayed older-adult passage to reference 42 and its separate flu-flyer passage to reference 6; the latter leads to the unknown 2007 data root.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-schwarz-flu-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-schwarz-flu-2007-memory", "span-schwarz-flu-2007-intentions", "span-schwarz-reference-6", "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-skurnik-2007-data" ], "dimensions": [ "source", "method" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:a5b2fc73a735e99afc94920c1608cd41bf41c557e8a694a3035053872eda9857", "key": "lineage-schwarz-flu-review", "note": "The 2016 flu-flyer passage cites the 2007 Schwarz et al. review, while Ecker et al. 2020 identifies that review as discussing the unpublished 2007 participant data. This is a review mention, not a new data root.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-ecker-2020-historical-report" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-skurnik-2007-data" ], "dimensions": [ "source", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:a2ab71fd7e203c29959064415bded9296d2f5ad5a5067cdff1fa3fcf75cb3abc", "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-historical-report", "note": "A historical report of the unpublished 2007 participant-data lineage, not a new participant-data root. It receives no independent data credit.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-ecker-2020-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-result", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:40dc53d1da6f54ead17c594408bcb3536766a52f83514c8d4a2365477710c53e", "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-data", "note": "One participant-data root for the Ecker et al. 2020 publication. Method and recruitment overlap are modeled separately so they do not collapse this paper-defined data collection into another data root.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-peter-koch-2016-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-peter-koch-2016-result", "span-peter-koch-2016-shared-stimulus", "span-peter-koch-2016-randomization", "span-peter-koch-2016-measure", "span-peter-koch-2016-error-definition" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:e90249f50d3cd5b73f68ccd86c8c84a3f73bc3af2b978869b8f600a7cac1100b", "key": "lineage-peter-koch-2016-data", "note": "Publication-defined participant-data root for a delayed journalistic myth-debunking result. The full method confirms that all participants read the correction article and only judgment instructions varied, so the data root is known but not target-comparable.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-cameron-2013-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-cameron-2013-knowledge", "span-cameron-2013-no-counterproductive" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:4df5b131fa3dcb1f7e0ce4d3b961f9bcade4d81bd1420c07a15255c1b384c7b7", "key": "lineage-cameron-2013-data", "note": "Publication-defined participant-data root for the randomized flu-message study. Its CDC condition belongs to the historical flu-flyer family, but the participant collection is separately reported.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-recruitment", "span-ecker-2020-cloudresearch" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "method", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:1ddd78bdd63a9c5a298681f7f0555c890a06bec3f61c3ccbfcf7e6f7323e79ba", "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-method", "note": "Recruitment-method lineage for the US MTurk and CloudResearch frame, including the 5000-HIT and 97% approval thresholds.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-ecker-short-2020-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-short-2020-result" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:50cd8733eef54ac4968e36d56402da86d14d1c00710a5d49d8df561f3334abf4", "key": "lineage-ecker-short-2020-data", "note": "Publication-defined two-experiment participant-data root. It shares Ecker and a correction research program with later papers, but no data reuse is asserted.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-ecker-hogan-2017-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:42e06f417ae288a76c41516c784c29039bfc4a9c1c3e1372cb3469dd850baeb2", "key": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-data", "note": "Publication-defined participant-data root directly comparing no retraction, retraction without a reminder, and retractions with subtle or explicit misinformation reminders. Every retraction also supplied an alternative causal account; method and research-program overlap are modeled separately.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-hogan-2017-no-retraction-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-repeat-result", "span-ecker-hogan-2017-alternative-account" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "method", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:a3692cc232368ee0de8c46ce000c2c47ddb08f93e1675c3b115c9be93e4ea4a9", "key": "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-method", "note": "Continued-influence retraction-method lineage. All tested retractions paired the correction with an alternative causal account, and Ecker and Lewandowsky also appear in the later Gordon research program.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-carnahan-garrett-2020-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-carnahan-2020-control-result", "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "span-carnahan-2020-processing-boundary" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:93653156e7056c62d2c434c446baef1e6344e44eda42b5abc9ab5a2ab5a93053", "key": "lineage-carnahan-garrett-2020-data", "note": "Publication-defined participant-data root. Study 2 provides the target-comparable control; Study 1 lacks a true control and receives no separate target-comparable credit.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-rich-2016-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-rich-2016-experiment-1-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-result", "span-rich-2016-experiment-2-all-conditions", "span-rich-2016-control-qualifier" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:13a4c5b95cc230724c4822bc83f592ffd79c17c6d14835eb8336c35b96eeb4e4", "key": "lineage-rich-2016-data", "note": "Publication-defined participant-data root. Both experiments compare a correction in a no-explicit-misinformation control narrative with the uncorrected control; the narrative still mentioned the correction target.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-swire-2017-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-swire-2017-experiment-1-result", "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "span-swire-2017-conclusion", "span-prike-2023-counter-search" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:4ace6874a39d9fd0209b7f205e8ab0ffaf46049931318ed42f4a81bd4bcdb3eb", "key": "lineage-swire-2017-data", "note": "Publication-defined two-experiment participant-data root. It shares Ecker and Lewandowsky with other correction research but reports distinct younger and older-adult collections; program independence is not claimed.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-gordon-2019-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "span-prike-2023-gordon-search" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:14d30885a097d1f5f591e31c8e4c9e0491bd001b1da24e588b7f325595fb1983", "key": "lineage-gordon-2019-data", "note": "Publication-defined participant-data root. Experiment 2 directly compares an only-negated narrative with a no-misinformation control; its continued-influence paradigm is a material standalone-correction boundary. Method and research-program overlap are modeled separately.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-gordon-2019-result", "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "span-prike-2023-gordon-search" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-ecker-hogan-2017-method" ], "dimensions": [ "method", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:17c0a1bf052983122a39beeaa4c7d628cc47e5df49be4377941bbfb6452399e7", "key": "lineage-gordon-2019-method", "note": "Continued-influence standalone-correction method lineage. Shared Ecker and Lewandowsky authorship and research-program overlap mean a separate program is not claimed; participant data remain a distinct root.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-ecker-2020-guidance" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach", "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-ecker-2020-data" ], "dimensions": [ "source", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:8667c81b3d5074b5dc36ac0c331a7d94da62cb5567a4663d265836dc51ba67e3", "key": "lineage-ecker-2020-interpretation", "note": "Interpretive guidance derived from the paper's participant-data series.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-prike-2023-result", "assert-prike-2023-skepticism" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-prike-2023-result" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:634e98c7c1fa2cb7928b180835b7eca07b33a23555734ae3f98ada52ed9a37b7", "key": "lineage-prike-2023-data", "note": "Separately reported participant-data root. It shares authors and a research program with Ecker et al. 2023 and shares the US MTurk/CloudResearch frame and thresholds with Ecker et al. 2020. Cross-paper participant overlap is unverified; only the paper-defined data collection is counted separately.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-prike-2023-recruitment", "span-prike-2023-ethics", "span-prike-2023-autry-sample" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "method", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:1f749e692068ecadba1d33ef9edb021956ba3ab101a1d4523e6ebdecdf7d6358", "key": "lineage-prike-2023-method", "note": "Method and research-team lineage. The MTurk frame matches Ecker et al. 2020, while authors and the UWA ethics series overlap Ecker et al. 2023.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-ecker-2023-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2023-result" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:d0837b19bdab60c5690064c78e61c6a4e3a4e1a7d40cb9ea6d258ade7042d493", "key": "lineage-ecker-2023-data", "note": "Separately reported UK Prolific participant-data root. It shares Ecker and Swire-Thompson, UWA ethics approval RA/4/20/6423, and a research program with Prike et al. 2023, and it directly reuses Pluviano et al. 2017 materials. Team, ethics, and material independence are not claimed.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-ecker-2023-recruitment", "span-ecker-2023-materials", "span-ecker-2023-ethics" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-pluviano-2017-method" ], "dimensions": [ "method", "apparatus", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:5927225fc1730f8763c72beadee8a6fa85e7d5d654aab4cbb43647c04195d57a", "key": "lineage-ecker-2023-method", "note": "Replication method and apparatus lineage. It directly reused the 2017 stimuli and overlaps the Prike research program in authors and ethics approval.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-autry-2021-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-autry-2021-result", "span-autry-2021-qualifier", "span-autry-2021-timing-limit", "span-prike-2023-autry-sample" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:b203ce1b30cdec4cc20ed8cb122e9461af9e8225530683933ecb7beea39a0530", "key": "lineage-autry-2021-data", "note": "Separately reported undergraduate participant-data root. Experiment 1 found the unlicensed-negation effect; the same contrast was nonsignificant in Experiment 2. It shares Autry and a research program with Thomas 2024.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-pluviano-2017-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:612b9ea51a51327f7ae4b75a936ceb1679e63a24aa6404bdae889f281e082487", "key": "lineage-pluviano-2017-data", "note": "Participant-data root for the 2017 student vaccine-message study. It shares authors, a vaccine-message research program, and materials with the 2019 study and the later Ecker et al. replication.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2017-result", "span-pluviano-2017-limitation" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "method", "apparatus", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:f5df90b4b25ff8017b6f79913e5ae8edc557e0a471657d3328113b1e866a042c", "key": "lineage-pluviano-2017-method", "note": "Student-sample vaccine-message method lineage. Later work reused or deliberately compared against this material and timing family.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-pluviano-2019-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2019-result", "span-pluviano-2019-dependence" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:45ab411423cbbbfbeccedc63a0eb5e0fa1423ba38783f9b906afd1101d287f9f", "key": "lineage-pluviano-2019-data", "note": "Separately reported parent participant-data root. It remains part of the same Pluviano author and vaccine-message program as the 2017 study, so program-level independence is not claimed.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-pluviano-2019-dependence" ], "depends_on": [ "lineage-pluviano-2017-method" ], "dimensions": [ "method", "apparatus", "social" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:dc05a919ce9ba9227e7c86725bbc20245849fd5b7a8f8353bf3ae0894955ead2", "key": "lineage-pluviano-2019-method", "note": "Parent-sample method lineage. The seven-day delay was explicitly chosen to allow straight comparison with the authors' 2017 study.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-thomas-2024-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-thomas-2024-result", "span-thomas-2024-mechanism" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:775832de92cefd7df589113beab7edfea730284729d7b5875a416d57ae1b8142", "key": "lineage-thomas-2024-data", "note": "Separately reported participant-data root testing unlicensed negated corrections with novel-word meanings. It shares Autry and a research program with Autry and Duarte 2021; program independence is not claimed.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-nibat-2026-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-nibat-2026-scope", "span-nibat-2026-result", "span-nibat-2026-search-overview" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:35f5ad8a7cb1f3fe57b57558a70eb2614c7953fad45a6b1321987905ad54f47e", "key": "lineage-nibat-2026-data", "note": "Separately reported participant-data root spanning five brand-misinformation studies and 4,337 participants. Author, sample, and method independence from the earlier paper series is not inferred merely from different authorship.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" }, { "assertion_keys": [ "assert-swire-thompson-2022-result" ], "basis_span_keys": [ "span-swire-thompson-2022-result" ], "depends_on": [], "dimensions": [ "data" ], "id": "em:dossier-lineage:sha256:7f4abebcd1faf9d38a00b08af5667cfa68f0a542d3f548602f1b76fd4f49b9e5", "key": "lineage-swire-thompson-2022-data", "note": "Publication-defined two-experiment participant-data root. Swire-Thompson also appears in other modeled papers, but the captured report describes new samples and no data-reuse dependence is asserted.", "status": "known", "visibility": "public" } ], "propositions": [ { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:04a1403e5e68b890e238d32f98356e29094e709f229c114ef0ddaa73f4fbbc06", "key": "prop-general-backfire", "scope": "Group-level familiarity backfire from corrective repetition; excludes continued influence, worldview backfire, and one-person anecdotes.", "text": "Repeating misinformation inside an evidence-based correction generally makes recipients believe or rely on the misinformation more than a no-correction or pre-correction baseline.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:ccc522da498fdbda3cc997082591c65e81430ca216114c12b96db6454476470c", "key": "prop-older-adult-result", "scope": "Older adults, consumer claims, and the tested delays in the 2005 paper.", "text": "Skurnik et al. reported delayed misremembering of warned-against consumer claims among older adults in two experiments, but the study lacked the no-correction or pre-correction baseline required by this dossier’s target.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:9da78fe5baa446dde07adef2feb33be4f567249e3cc92a48d21712911b85bb5e", "key": "prop-guidance-overreach", "scope": "The recommendation sources named by Ecker et al. 2020.", "text": "Some communicator guidance advised avoiding repetition more generally than the later experimental record warranted.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:d752ee299e74fb9d8c06f24db370e292aacc9ce2443069bdecbc4dcd4deae67c", "key": "prop-skepticism-boundary", "scope": "Prike et al. 2023 Experiment 3; open-ended response result did not repeat on the rating-scale measure.", "text": "Skepticism toward a correction may be a boundary condition under which a standalone correction can backfire on some measures.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:e00621f5137bce620ef25fa0ab0faa71c6ecae2af9495cfecdd47d9bd5256278", "key": "prop-flu-flyer-result", "scope": "Skurnik, Yoon, and Schwarz 2007 participant data as described in later publications; the manuscript and participant-level record remain unavailable.", "text": "An unpublished 2007 study reportedly found worse myth classification and lower flu-vaccination intentions after a myths-and-facts flyer than in the relevant control conditions.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:75b98c02e5882e414e8bcafbd449c21541eaff25b02ba18a0414770e72e6dbaf", "key": "prop-unlicensed-negation-boundary", "scope": "Autry and Duarte 2021 and Thomas and Autry 2024; novel or unexpected negated details, not all correction formats.", "text": "A standalone negated correction can increase later use of a previously unseen claim when the negation lacks contextual licensing, although the exact effect did not reach significance in every experiment.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:11cba23a6eb8607fbc5342163d2ddf438894367c5e50f7faba78548817381956", "key": "prop-vaccine-myths-boundary", "scope": "Pluviano et al. 2017 and 2019 positive reports and Ecker et al. 2023 replication; vaccine beliefs and intentions in their tested samples.", "text": "Two vaccine-message studies reported delayed outcomes worse than control for myths-and-facts formats, while a later direct replication using the same materials did not reproduce the effect.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:6525ebebd6002f49ce46f4c980c698caa372e647a72d037d48c7225c08544b60", "key": "prop-peter-koch-boundary", "scope": "Peter and Koch 2016 web experiment; truth-memory errors after the shared article, not target-comparable belief or reliance above baseline.", "text": "Peter and Koch reported a delayed backfire effect after journalistic myth-and-fact coverage, but all participants read the correction article and the study had no no-correction or pre-correction belief baseline.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:cc89bd900b8871fc67257eb1fd64daf93794246e17d8c5a700b936f287a5e9fd", "key": "prop-cameron-flu-result", "scope": "Cameron et al. 2013 randomized flu-message study; knowledge and recall outcomes over the tested one-week interval.", "text": "Cameron et al. found knowledge gains across flu-message conditions and no evidence that presenting facts and myths was counterproductive to recall accuracy.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:44747bb8dc37584c9a489222a3c5d46c2247172e9bef69a318a8609ff4cf7543", "key": "prop-short-format-result", "scope": "Ecker et al. 2020 short-format fact-check experiments and tested delays.", "text": "Simple retractions reduced false-claim belief and did not show a familiarity-driven backfire effect in the Ecker et al. short-format series.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:3a63a88b23e70cfc738c9c01d47ae49b0feda152f92e7595c1f1197190c4be3e", "key": "prop-ecker-hogan-2017-result", "scope": "Ecker, Hogan, and Lewandowsky 2017; fictional event reports, inferential reasoning, and one publication-defined participant-data series.", "text": "In Ecker, Hogan, and Lewandowsky 2017, every retraction reduced misinformation reliance relative to no retraction, and a retraction that explicitly repeated the misinformation reduced reliance more than a retraction without a reminder.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:edc55f643fc79a42a5e2b3c48631318dd5b8d19a5e5c23e5a12e9e73abf36752", "key": "prop-carnahan-2020-result", "scope": "Carnahan and Garrett 2020 Study 2; GMO belief accuracy, one-sided and two-sided corrections, processing-style moderation, and a true control.", "text": "In Carnahan and Garrett Study 2, every correction format—including two formats that repeated the misinformation—improved belief accuracy versus an unrelated-story control, with no overall disadvantage for repetition.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:dcb12f36d4d5f1f7c7daf072cb910ad60b5df98a3ed3bfdf880badc2b771e0da", "key": "prop-rich-2016-result", "scope": "Rich and Zaragoza 2016; control narratives mentioned the son but did not explicitly implicate him, so residual pragmatic licensing remains a design qualifier.", "text": "Across two experiments, presenting a correction in a control narrative that contained no explicit misinformation did not increase misinformation reliance: Experiment 1 was null and Experiment 2 reduced reliance.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:51bcc0576de247dfdba2bb7d9df36ad5d1f3532781f86192d7b993233b60368b", "key": "prop-swire-2017-result", "scope": "Swire, Ecker, and Lewandowsky 2017; younger and older-adult samples, brief and detailed corrections, and pre-correction belief baselines.", "text": "Across two experiments and delays up to three weeks, myth belief rebounded but remained below each experiment's pre-correction baseline; the authors reported no true familiarity backfire effect.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:f74a897886d94fe42d6fae90930b9d743b855ca1d0a11c982575128b1a6941d8", "key": "prop-gordon-2019-result", "scope": "Gordon, Ecker, and Lewandowsky 2019 Experiment 2; only-negated narrative versus a no-misinformation control; Bayesian evidence for the observed difference was very weak.", "text": "In Gordon et al. Experiment 2, a standalone negation produced fewer misinformation inferences than a no-misinformation control rather than a familiarity-driven increase.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:9c6b99296ba054c147f4e24085e614fe2cabbc8845501e98339474a5563453aa", "key": "prop-reliability-counter-result", "scope": "Swire-Thompson et al. 2022; 21 items and two participant samples.", "text": "Across two correction-versus-test-retest experiments, no item backfired relative to the control or initial-belief baselines.", "visibility": "public" }, { "id": "em:dossier-proposition:sha256:8d3514bdece26d74f285ed559087f9bf7f053652161da1ac303bd4a9b1d5d6c1", "key": "prop-brand-correction-result", "scope": "Nibat et al. 2026; corporate misinformation, fact-check labels, brand familiarity, immediate and delayed tests, and first-exposure corrections.", "text": "Across five brand-misinformation studies, repetition did not increase belief more than correction reduced it.", "visibility": "public" } ], "question": "When a correction repeats a false claim, does familiarity generally cause belief or reliance to rise above an uncorrected or pre-correction baseline?", "scope": "A lineage audit of the familiarity backfire claim. 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In fact, both Experiments 2 and 3 yielded substantial evidence against the presence of a familiarity backfire effect, even under conditions that should maximize reliance on familiarity and thus facilitate occurrence of familiarity backfire, viz. the combination of novel claims that maximized the familiarity boost conveyed by first exposure, a relatively long 1-week retention interval, and correction encoding under cognitive load (the load condition of Experiment 3)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:5bce7b41c23d1b27b5d6a0cacd6e1becbfe6fb57e4e521751971d5c09c714b1c", "key": "span-ecker-2020-result", "locator": { "label": "General discussion result", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:bcb9535c1b74df2e08512c9332dfeb916e1a8b8a4dc21eeab2afd99cebbc1915", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "The practical implications of this research are clear: recommendations to front-line educators and communicators to entirely avoid repeating misinformation when debunking (Cook & Lewandowsky, 2011; Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Peter & Koch, 2016; Schwarz et al., 2007, 2016) were unwarranted." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:f022f035499681e019eb4f3c79f695f15e719db496ce94793e7fe3a0123fbdfb", "key": "span-ecker-2020-guidance-overreach", "locator": { "label": "General discussion practical implications opening", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:2d3a6e20694cdfe944069ad69fbd09c3549a313666ae5c6e273eb979328c81e3", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Finally, the present study suggests that exposure to a correction does not cause familiarity backfire relative to a no-exposure control even with novel claims, and thus corrections do not seem to spread misinformation to new audiences easily." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:538f49e91d6bf5fb256a3e3602616895beefb849551ddee8116c54161658da92", "key": "span-ecker-2020-guidance-conclusion", "locator": { "label": "General discussion practical implications conclusion", "pointer": "/excerpts/2/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:37e375687881d2db06cde263863e343274348cc9b562e2b986038295ef03c64d", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "the only clear demonstration of a familiarity backfire effect was reported in an unpublished manuscript by Skurnik, Yoon, and Schwarz (2007; discussed by Schwarz et al., 2007)" }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:9c81d25b1a60915d89b3d9dc5c0d61f5e31c35c0b9e0362f300c6cc41b675d49", "key": "span-ecker-2020-unpublished-lineage", "locator": { "label": "Introduction paragraph 7, unpublished 2007 lineage", "pointer": "/excerpts/3/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:e25d7495f5db242e9eb5cfc1b1e302a33214f7241842e3251047621865d8b64c", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "the study also did not feature a baseline condition against which to access actual “backfire.”" }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:904b6f6c39ff2ab990eb887faa445fb3a515466e5d5beb60e27f7a1155b2df7f", "key": "span-ecker-2020-no-baseline", "locator": { "label": "Introduction paragraph 7, missing-baseline qualification", "pointer": "/excerpts/4/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:4b28844116896c08d8c786e622b15b4439eac2ecff3ac4de83fe566d04f2c0a9", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Participants were US-based adult Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) workers, who had completed at least 5000 so-called human-intelligence tasks (HITs) with 97% + approval." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:7740ac912f07e1043285fb2147d05d884154f66af713fe145badd3573a0c7569", "key": "span-ecker-2020-recruitment", "locator": { "label": "Experiment 1 participants", "pointer": "/excerpts/5/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:6467d53ef085e424f2a5bf4bde2226d009b2d0d98af525d4ebe4dff61370283a", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "The experiment was administered using Qualtrics survey software (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) via the CloudResearch platform (formerly TurkPrime; Litman, Robinson, & Abberbock, 2017)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:151a27ed917e26c4d9709ba09c8e05dc556ece4c7548be6c57e89b8645735fd8", "key": "span-ecker-2020-cloudresearch", "locator": { "label": "Experiment 1 procedure administration platform", "pointer": "/excerpts/6/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:6fb8473e4885c137b52698b59b88ce062b5d44dfde63dfd75df1caa4181934f5", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "unlike Skurnik et al. 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"Subjects then attempted to recall facts, indicated their belief in those recalls, and indicated whether they remembered corrections and misinformation." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:6881ece1a87d920941dd9dcec4df52d8bfdb0b9f1b76148c84846d36f6c3833c", "key": "span-wahlheim-2020-endpoint", "locator": { "label": "PDF p. 1, abstract endpoint", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:3459917b9183fd36540afe567539a8be44d13cb74b6e0662497847b569bcf5f7", "edition_key": "edition-wahlheim-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Reminders increased recall and belief accuracy." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:39e8e325388b0fec747fadd1b7436043dda006675eaa2ef46f659177be1fc716", "key": "span-wahlheim-2020-result", "locator": { "label": "PDF p. 1, abstract result", "pointer": "/excerpts/2/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": 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We included control headlines as a contrast condition against which to assess proactive effects of fake news exposure on memory for real news headlines." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:92a511a8cf76fafbaa0814e2ff63fe1a137cba346eefddb816d7994a3f5fe2cd", "key": "span-kemp-2022a-control-boundary", "locator": { "label": "JATS Par21, control-endpoint boundary", "pointer": "/excerpts/2/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:e070ff33d9bf78a778a5834b9521abce41f4369cb02b6bd52b7642b4e8d9a2ec", "edition_key": "edition-kemp-2022b", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Participants then saw labeled and unlabeled real news corrections; labeled corrections appeared alone or after fake news reminders." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:52f3566acd770e59ec0bbe69ed1ffadfb9689a189a2cfd0426c64344f798969a", "key": "span-kemp-2022b-design", "locator": { "label": "JATS abstract, correction/reminder design", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, 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"edition_key": "edition-carnahan-garrett-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "pairwise comparisons between each of the correction treatment groups and the control group found these differences to be statistically significant (p < .05)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:8bf3a9d42589a14844cf750ff260aed3d5c170d5d48cbf1898187f8911bf1dd7", "key": "span-carnahan-2020-pairwise-result", "locator": { "label": "Study 2 results, control-pairwise result", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:081dead7497b9af0d33c0d292bad683114425621dcd3cda11b6dcce1c671ca2f", "edition_key": "edition-carnahan-garrett-2020", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "none of the coefficients on message format are significant" }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:2f469e57e2679afee48a9270ef807e35dadbbefb50a4f91ca93263c29852ca30", "key": "span-carnahan-2020-format-null", "locator": { "label": "Study 2 results, message-format null", "pointer": 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true backfire effect was elicited." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:aae1631679fac26b7d5ef3902d957f820632727ccd04f164db3dbe8578c8776b", "key": "span-swire-2017-experiment-2-result", "locator": { "label": "Manuscript p. 22, Experiment 2 result", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:4d93c225b3db9a30425b55619723c0fda057f817934daad436233f1429b194be", "edition_key": "edition-swire-2017", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "However, we found no evidence for the existence of a true familiarity-based backfire effect." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:1dda269f69b9276d6d80febceb648db83de6bc97dc0321e263b94d97cadea100", "key": "span-swire-2017-conclusion", "locator": { "label": "Manuscript p. 30, discussion conclusion", "pointer": "/excerpts/2/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:a503d253bafff59764474ce44a22eca8cebfcf1bba47fab38a044f6ebabf8b09", "edition_key": "edition-gordon-2019", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Experiment 2 clarified that only-negated narratives produced significantly fewer misinformation inferences than a control condition in which the misinformation was never mentioned." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:30e4fa215273432bed175ffa31bf0f89a34315077f0c440e1b311e4343627579", "key": "span-gordon-2019-result", "locator": { "label": "Preprint p. 32, Experiment 2 discussion", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:08717a12e4496e43c256759d8728e722becb574eb80dd36cb792b2974a6ba3ff", "edition_key": "edition-gordon-2019", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Participants mentioned the critical information significantly less following a negation than if that information was never mentioned, although the corresponding Bayesian analysis indicated only very weak evidence for a difference between the two, meaning that this interpretation must be made with some caution." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:75f994f902538d88fa866eec2869dba811c809bc17fa286b8f18d278481dc76f", "key": "span-gordon-2019-qualifier", "locator": { "label": "Preprint p. 24, Bayesian result qualifier", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:e44347d354ee736e558729127188099a1289b94334b3e7f8058573dec9843860", "edition_key": "edition-prike-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Across three experiments (total N = 1156) we found that standalone corrections did not backfire immediately (Experiment 1) or after a one-week delay (Experiment 2). However, there was some mixed evidence suggesting corrections may backfire when there is skepticism regarding the correction (Experiment 3). Specifically, in Experiment 3, we found the standalone correction to backfire in open-ended responses, but only when there was skepticism towards the correction. However, this did not replicate with the rating scales measure." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:312a906bf71acd0b989eff19d01ea6e6874ddff21546c2956a6809af1baaa99a", "key": "span-prike-2023-result", "locator": { "label": "Abstract results and qualification", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:d3c00f89486560493611e12fc0432adad0802d609d96c87e554606fa301401fc", "edition_key": "edition-prike-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "To account for potential exclusions and ensure ample statistical power, 283 participants were recruited from the online testing platform Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) via CloudResearch (Litman et al., 2017). Participants were eligible if they resided in the United States of America and had previously completed more than 5000 MTurk tasks (HITs) with a minimum approval rating of 97%." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:a48e75ded5d3ef41916b981244b096e74cbe8141ddfe64c5a9764d0e3930e14e", "key": "span-prike-2023-recruitment", "locator": { "label": "Experiment 1 participants", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:59d802c2e9dc907e8560d6d91480b26c6cfc6c0d85afed0db96a6a3b02b7e0ca", "edition_key": "edition-prike-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "All procedures were approved by the University of Western Australia’s Human Research Ethics Office (Ethics ID: RA/4/20/6423)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:6a41d4e6ea372a6733098e7e9cf21bb46db1a23e9631878c1c1d3d49fcc1472c", "key": "span-prike-2023-ethics", "locator": { "label": "Ethics approval", "pointer": "/excerpts/2/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:c5cd147b5e06b9c62babf05bb1a2db8f532a280198bc85f605d0fce9b4ca84b1", "edition_key": "edition-prike-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Additionally, Autry and Duarte only sampled undergraduates whereas our participants were recruited from MTurk without any age restrictions." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:ca888f9bcc17de648e4c62417fd636ddb00fdd018ed53d4b2f7a448511522a04", "key": "span-prike-2023-autry-sample", "locator": { "label": "General discussion sample comparison", "pointer": "/excerpts/3/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:35eae3b4e2f4dc57796a88065b2592ca6628f154df8b34a76641083b60b1d21c", "edition_key": "edition-prike-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "However, there is little empirical evidence in support of this familiarity backfire effect (Cameron et al., 2013; Ecker et al., 2017; Ecker et al., 2020c; Ecker et al., 2023; Kemp et al., 2022a, 2022b; Swire et al., 2017; Wahlheim et al., 2020; for reviews, see Ecker et al., 2022; Swire-Thompson et al., 2022)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:a9bb9ef2875d9cd890551bfff80f85970f4ae8904449846c77a2f3346db61078", "key": "span-prike-2023-counter-search", "locator": { "label": "Introduction, bounded counterevidence search", "pointer": "/excerpts/4/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:c3421868abe9a140c4d3c78ea5b9d0671a5bc7e3e2fae4e3003a3657d7b82334", "edition_key": "edition-prike-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Although these accounts offer some theoretical justification for why standalone corrections may backfire, some previous studies using standalone corrections without initial misinformation exposure have not found any evidence of deleterious effects (Ecker et al., 2020b, 2020c; Gordon et al., 2019)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:57a199ee13572afda1af73c38a77f00d3a8f0ed646fa45bf1a1af4662bca7dbb", "key": "span-prike-2023-gordon-search", "locator": { "label": "Introduction, standalone-correction search", "pointer": "/excerpts/5/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:c77a5feb5aa278ff7dcd816ff676af0e8ed1ee06c3688ba6981e5b82df10b40b", "edition_key": "edition-ecker-2023", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "We found that the myths vs. facts condition reduced vaccine misconceptions. None of the conditions increased vaccine misconceptions relative to control at either timepoint, or relative to a pre-intervention baseline; thus, no backfire effects were observed. 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Firstly, we used a convenience sample with limited variability in age and educational level." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:4eb344f23a2dfa8dfea638dad9c6d85fa48ff85dd75334634d3ecbac3d35159a", "key": "span-pluviano-2017-limitation", "locator": { "label": "Discussion limitations paragraph 8", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:3fd55c93ccc8a422c44ffa1706f86eee8aadd938ec57ddca1c3888447c3ea397", "edition_key": "edition-pluviano-2019", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Data provided support for the existence of backfire effects associated with the use of the myths vs. fact format, with parents in this condition having stronger vaccine misconceptions over time compared with participants in the control condition." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:2b2da5e8de8445caa839af8e7f1f644b9b8472292525ab3853ff312d4253b1f3", "key": "span-pluviano-2019-result", "locator": { "label": "Accepted manuscript abstract result", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:8444b669d373904f9069756d7f4b5ed471e6bcfccafca63a6d8e2af62a9927d8", "edition_key": "edition-pluviano-2019", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "We opted for a 7-day delay between the two tests as suggested by Nyhan et al.’s (2014) study and to allow a straight comparison with our own previous study (Pluviano et al. 2017)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:d1a1dbc9df530c47fdc00498431f3ecfe7418e090a8ce489a9f3cac545958b66", "key": "span-pluviano-2019-dependence", "locator": { "label": "Procedure comparison with prior study", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:3fbe77e014d6319af253e2a148084bf791fc3324d55760d6705741d20ef49261", "edition_key": "edition-thomas-2024", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Misinformation use was significantly greater when a correction was provided without licensing than when no information was provided at all." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:54008ff854744354478a115debea8fcde2305ddf6f0206b3883ae141922c5684", "key": "span-thomas-2024-result", "locator": { "label": "Crossref abstract result", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:77fcdf6d947caab279118003d76095de02f088f1f6c74d937d0b09cd97155044", "edition_key": "edition-thomas-2024", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "We suggest that the backfire effect observed in this study may be the result of a violation of the Gricean maxims of communication" }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:98c7768aba4cbd41d912e34fc38b4c1dda459eab7f9a3b06906af1ad967c0fe6", "key": "span-thomas-2024-mechanism", "locator": { "label": "Crossref abstract mechanism", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:c90d59bc538df2664e52b40a97a3f1d0922c3b45ec901d3dfa512ad89e56b4cc", "edition_key": "edition-nibat-2026", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Across five studies (N = 4337), this article systematically compares the competing effects of repetition and correction on belief in corporate misinformation and brand evaluations." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:473baa094df666b2465ff37a9513236fffe451d903e5947babcc7aa009779a68", "key": "span-nibat-2026-scope", "locator": { "label": "PDF p. 1 abstract scope", "pointer": "/excerpts/0/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:ec3db4151b90bc0fbd5c4a78095c5567e9493d97554526837fe0970baf92d05e", "edition_key": "edition-nibat-2026", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "This research finds no evidence of a familiarity backfire effect: in none of the studies, repetition increases belief in the misinformation more than correction reduces it." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:b4d241739581fb1815878ad90abbf9607d93f13ab7d269037adea2d7e89ba19e", "key": "span-nibat-2026-result", "locator": { "label": "PDF p. 1 abstract result", "pointer": "/excerpts/1/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:4458a1abfa1badf27fa59c2de81a7d6efbe3be1a8a2a15eef14e5c5dbcdf5955", "edition_key": "edition-nibat-2026", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "Some studies report no evidence of a familiarity backfire effect (e.g., Ecker et al., 2019, 2023; Swire et al., 2017) and even show repetition can enhance correction effectiveness (Ecker et al., 2017; Kemp et al., 2022; Wahlheim et al., 2020). Other work finds that corrections increase belief in misinformation or reliance on it, especially when brief and minimal, as with fact-checking labels (e.g., Berinsky, 2017; Peter & Koch, 2016; Pluviano et al., 2017, 2019; Skurnik et al., 2005)." }, "id": "em:dossier-span:sha256:21ef0a334b3e2340bf0e260128e7cd2569211a89078535e586f0cb0c49b24af8", "key": "span-nibat-2026-search-overview", "locator": { "label": "PDF p. 3, bounded literature overview", "pointer": "/excerpts/2/text", "type": "json-pointer" }, "visibility": "public" }, { "digest": "sha256:b1f24159da1891a12efbe4ed519863c3313eb0a4f16c551902c128443d846de2", "edition_key": "edition-swire-thompson-2022", "extent": { "type": "json-value", "value": "In two nearly identical experiments, we conducted a longitudinal pre/post design with N = 388 and 532 participants. Participants rated 21 misinformation items and were assigned to a correction condition or test-retest control. 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